Unlock the Secrets of High-Yield Tomato Farming: The Ultimate Guide to Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

 

Tomato Cultivation (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

 

I. INTRODUCTION

1.1. History of Tomato Dissemination

The word tomato originates from the Aztec language—one of the Native American tribes—from the terms xitomate or xitotomate. Tomato plants originated in Peru and Ecuador, then spread throughout the Americas, especially in tropical regions, as weeds. Their dissemination was facilitated by birds that consumed tomato fruits and dispersed the seeds through their droppings. Tomatoes were later introduced to Europe and Asia by the Spanish. In Indonesia, tomatoes began to be cultivated following the arrival of the Dutch. Since then, tomato plants have spread across the world, both in tropical and subtropical regions.

1.2. Major Production Centers

Major tomato cultivation centers worldwide include Japan, China, and Taiwan, while in Indonesia the primary center is the Malang area. The adjacent image shows an example of tomato cultivation in a greenhouse in Gunma Prefecture, Japan.

1.3. Plant Types

Tomato is an annual plant with a lifespan of approximately four months.

The botanical classification is as follows:

• Division: Spermatophyta
• Subdivision: Angiospermae
• Class: Dicotyledonae
• Order: Solanales
• Family: Solanaceae
• Genus: Lycopersicon
• Species: Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

Among the many available tomato varieties, the ones most commonly cultivated by farmers include Ratna, Berlian, Precious 206, Kingkong, and Intan. Field surveys indicate that Artaloka is the variety most frequently used.

1.4. Benefits of Tomatoes

Tomatoes provide significant health benefits because they contain essential vitamins and minerals needed for growth and overall well-being. Tomato fruits also contain carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and calories. As a versatile commodity, tomatoes are used as vegetables, culinary spices, fresh fruits, appetite enhancers, beverages, food colorants, as well as ingredients in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.

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II. GROWTH REQUIREMENTS

2.1. Climate

1. The optimal annual rainfall for tomato growth is 750–1,250 mm. This is closely related to soil water availability, especially in areas without proper irrigation. Excessive rainfall may hinder pollination.
2. Insufficient sunlight increases the plant’s susceptibility to diseases, both parasitic and non-parasitic. High-intensity sunlight enhances the production of vitamin C and carotene (provitamin A). Maximum nutrient absorption occurs when tomatoes receive 12–14 hours of light per day, with a preferred intensity of 0.25 mj/m² per hour. The image above shows two Indonesian trainees working in a tomato farm in Gunma Prefecture, Japan.
3. The optimal daily temperature for tomato growth is 18–29°C during the day and 10–20°C at night. In countries with four seasons, heaters are used during winter; the warm air is distributed through flexible white ducts inside the greenhouse.
4. A high relative humidity of around 25% stimulates growth in young tomato plants because CO₂ assimilation is improved by wider stomatal openings. However, high humidity also promotes the development of plant pathogens.

2.2. Growing Media

1. Tomatoes can grow in various soil types—from sandy soils to fertile sandy loam soils—provided they are friable, rich in organic matter, contain sufficient nutrients, and allow good water percolation. Tomato roots are sensitive to oxygen deficiency; therefore, stagnant water must be avoided.
2. Soil pH between 5.5 and 7.0 is ideal for tomato cultivation.
3. Tomato cultivation should preferably be carried out on flat land, eliminating the need for terraces or embankments.

2.3. Altitude

Tomatoes can grow at various altitudes—both in highlands and lowlands—depending on the variety. Suitable highland varieties include Berlian, Mutiara, and Kada. Suitable lowland varieties include Intan, Ratna, Berlian, LV, and CLN. Some varieties perform well in both lowland and highland areas, such as GH 2, GH 4, Berlian, and Mutiara.

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III. TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR CULTIVATION

3.1. Seedling Preparation

3.1.1. Seed Requirements

Technical criteria for selecting tomato seeds include:

a) Choose intact seeds without defects or injuries, as damaged seeds generally show poor germination.

b) Select healthy seeds free from signs of pest or disease infestation.

c) Ensure seeds are clean and free of impurities.

d) Avoid wrinkled seeds.

3.1.2. Seed Procurement

Tomato seeds may be obtained by purchasing certified high-quality seeds from reputable agricultural suppliers or by producing seeds independently.

3.1.3. Seed Nursery Techniques

Selected seeds must be disinfected before sowing by soaking them in a fungicide solution to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. There are several nursery methods:

• Method 1: Seeds are evenly broadcast on the nursery bed surface and covered with a thin layer of soil.
• Method 2: Seeds are sown in furrows spaced 5 cm apart and 1 cm deep.
• Method 3: Seeds are planted directly in polybags filled with a 1:1 mixture of soil and manure, with one seed per polybag.

After sowing, the medium should be moistened.

3.1.4. Nursery Maintenance

Nursery maintenance must be carried out intensively during early growth. Activities include:

1. Watering twice daily (morning and afternoon) using a fine-holed sprinkler.
2. Weeding by manually removing weeds as needed.
3. Fertilizing with additional NPK after seedlings emerge.
4. Pest and disease control, including soil sterilization and the application of insecticides (for insects) and fungicides (for fungal infections). Examples: Furadan 3G, Dithane, Hostathion, and Antracol.

3.1.5. Transplanting

Seedlings can be transplanted 30–45 days after sowing. Select seedlings that are vigorous, upright, fresh-looking, and free from pests and diseases. Transplanting should be done in the morning or late afternoon to prevent wilting.

Transplanting methods:

1. Pull-out method — seedlings are carefully uprooted after moistening the bed.
2. Soil-ball method — seedlings are lifted with surrounding soil after watering.
3. Polybag method — seedlings are removed along with the soil by tearing the polybag.

3.2. Soil Preparation

3.2.1. Timing

Soil preparation must align with nursery duration. Nursery takes 30–45 days, while intensive soil preparation requires 21 days. Begin land preparation 1–2 weeks after sowing seeds.

3.2.2. Land Preparation

Three stages are involved:

1. First stage: Deep plowing (25–30 cm) using animal-drawn plows or tractors. Soil is left for one week for aeration and oxidation.
2. Second stage: Shallow hoeing to achieve friable soil structure; leave for another week.
3. Third stage: Application of well-decomposed manure (15–20 tons/ha), followed by shallow hoeing to mix thoroughly.

3.2.3. Bed Formation

Beds are oriented east–west for optimal sunlight distribution. Bed size: width 1–1.2 m, height 30–45 cm (higher during rainy season). Furrows: width 20–30 cm, depth 30 cm. Surrounding drainage canals: width 50 cm, depth 50 cm.

3.2.4. Liming

Apply lime (quicklime, carbonate lime, or hydrated lime) to acidic soils during land preparation. Liming improves soil structure, stimulates microbial activity, reduces toxic substances, and adjusts soil pH. Dosage depends on the initial soil pH.

3.2.5. Fertilization

Fertilization methods:

1. Broadcasting compost/manure and TSP evenly over beds and mixing thoroughly.
2. Hole application: Dig 15 cm deep holes (20 cm diameter), apply 0.5 kg manure and 5 g TSP, then cover and mix.

3.2.6. Mulching

Silver-black plastic mulch is commonly used due to its practicality compared to using crop residues.

3.3. Planting Techniques

3.3.1. Planting Patterns

Two spacing systems:

1. Pruned system (single stem):

Spacing: 50×50 cm or 60×60 cm. Side shoots are removed early.

2. Free-growing system:

Spacing: 80×80 cm, 80×100 cm, or 100×100 cm. Side shoots are allowed to develop.

3.3.2. Planting Holes

Prepare planting holes (7–8 cm diameter, 15 cm deep) on mulched beds one day after watering.

3.3.3. Planting Method

During the dry season, use silver-black plastic mulch; during the rainy season, install transparent plastic roofs over the beds.

3.4. Plant Maintenance

3.4.1. Thinning and Replanting

Replace dead, weak, or abnormal plants within one week after planting using reserve seedlings of the same age.

3.4.2. Weeding

Weeding is necessary to prevent nutrient competition and reduce pest habitats. Weeding frequency: 3–4 times depending on field conditions.

3.4.3. Earthing Up

Earthing up improves soil aeration, reduces toxic gases, and encourages healthy root growth. Avoid damaging roots.

3.4.4. Pruning

• Remove axillary shoots weekly to maintain single-stem growth.
• Prune in the morning to allow wounds to dry quickly.
• Larger shoots require clean, sharp tools.
• Limit plant height by cutting the top after 5–7 fruit clusters form.

3.4.5. Fertilization

1. First application: 1 week after transplanting, apply 1–2 g of a 1:1 mixture of urea and KCl around each plant (3 cm from stem).
2. Second application: 2–3 weeks after transplanting, apply 5 g of the same mixture (5 cm from stem).
3. Third application: At 4 weeks if growth is poor, apply 7 g (7 cm from stem).

3.4.6. Watering and Irrigation

Tomatoes require moderate water. Excess water causes excessive vegetative growth, nutrient deficiency, disease susceptibility, and flower drop. Prolonged drought causes cracking fruits and flower drop.

3.4.7. Staking

Stakes prevent plants from falling over.

• Stakes made of bamboo or wood (100–175 cm).
• Install early to avoid root damage.
• Keep stakes 10–20 cm from the stem.
• Tie plants with the figure-8 method to avoid abrasion.

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3.5. Pests and Diseases

3.5.1. Pests

1. Tomato Fruit Borer (Heliothis armigera Hubner)

Characteristics:

Larvae are approximately 4 cm long and grow longer at lower temperatures. Their color varies from green, yellowish-green, brownish-green, brown to black. On the sides of the body, there is a wavy longitudinal line of lighter color. The larvae possess many tubercles and fine hairs. Eggs are round, shiny yellowish, and after 2–4 days turn brown. Adult moths have a wingspan of about 4 cm and a body length of 1.5–2.0 cm. The forewings are brown while the hindwings are white with brown edges.

Symptoms:

Larvae attack leaves, flowers, and fruits. They often bore holes into tomato fruits and move from fruit to fruit. The damaged fruits usually become infected and rot.

Control:

1. Moths are attracted to ultraviolet light, so UV traps can be used.
2. Eggs and larvae can be hand-collected and destroyed.
3. Planting maize around the plot helps reduce infestation.
4. Remove weeds around the tomato field.
5. Spray insecticides such as Diazinon or Cymbush.

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2. Green Aphids

Aphids belong to the family Aphididae (order Hemiptera), often called tomato aphids, tobacco aphids, or potato aphids. They act as vectors for viral diseases in tomatoes.

Characteristics:

Some individuals are winged while others are wingless. Winged aphids measure 2–2.5 mm, with brown to black head and thorax and a yellowish-green abdomen. Their antennae are as long as their bodies. Wingless aphids measure 1.8–2.3 mm and are yellowish-green.

Symptoms:

Aphid-infested leaves become deformed, curled, stunted, narrowed like a ribbon, chlorotic, mosaic-patterned, and brittle.

Control:

1. Using reflective paper mulch repels aphids by reflecting sunlight.
2. Remove weeds that serve as shelter for aphids.
3. Mechanical control can be done by squashing aphids manually.
4. Chemical control using insecticides.

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3. Whiteflies

Whiteflies belong to the family Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera) and disperse like a cloud of white dust when disturbed.

Characteristics:

Adults measure about 1 mm, are yellowish-white, and covered with white waxy powder. They have two pairs of white wings (span ± 2 mm) and red eyes. Females are larger than males. Eggs are elliptical (0.2–0.3 mm), and pupae are about 0.7 mm long and look like scales on the leaves.

Symptoms:

Infested plants appear covered with white powder that disperses when touched. Plants become stunted, leaves shrink and roll upward.

Control:

1. Use natural enemies (parasitoid wasps, predatory insects).
2. Remove weeds around the field.
3. Uproot and burn virus-infected plants.
4. Use straw or yellow plastic mulch.
5. Spray insecticides such as Diazinon, Malathion, or Azinphos-methyl.

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4. Thrips

Thrips belong to the family Thripidae (order Thysanoptera).

Characteristics:

Adults are 1–1.2 mm long, black with or without red streaks. Nymphs are white to yellowish and wingless. Adults have fringed wings. Eggs are kidney-shaped or oval.

Symptoms:

Thrips suck leaf sap, causing leaves to appear silvery due to air entering the tissues. Severe infestation causes drying and plant death.

Control:

1. Water plants sufficiently because drought increases thrips infestation.
2. Remove weeds.
3. Apply insecticides such as Diazinon, Malathion, or Monocrotophos.

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5. Fruit Flies

Fruit flies belong to the family Trypetidae (Tephritidae), order Diptera.

Characteristics:

Adults have transparent wings (5–7 mm) and body length of 6–8 mm. The abdomen is light brown with dark bands. Larvae are white to yellowish and live inside fruit flesh.

Symptoms:

Fruits rot due to secondary infection. Larvae (maggots) are visible inside the fruit and can “jump” up to 30 cm when disturbed.

Control:

1. Turn the soil to expose pupae to sunlight.
2. Use attractant traps for males.
3. Destroy infested fruits.
4. Remove weeds.

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6. Two-Spotted Mite

Belongs to the family Tetranychidae (Acarina).

Characteristics:

Oval-shaped, eight-legged mites, 0.3–0.4 mm long, pale yellow with two dark spots. They live on the underside of leaves and produce webs.

Symptoms:

Leaves and shoots turn yellow, then brown and dry.

Control:

1. Rainfall reduces mite populations.
2. Remove weeds.
3. Plant resistant varieties.
4. Apply acaricides such as Omite or Kelthane.

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7. Red Spider Mite

Also from family Tetranychidae.

Characteristics:

Eight-legged mites, 0.3–0.5 mm, reddish to brownish. Causes rust-colored spots on leaves.

Symptoms:

Leaves turn rust-colored, dry, and plants become stunted.

Control:

1. Remove weeds.
2. Plant resistant varieties.
3. Utilize natural predators.
4. Rain reduces population.
5. Apply acaricides.

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8. Root-Knot Nematodes

Characteristics:

Small worm-like nematodes (200–1000 µm), requiring microscopic observation.

Symptoms:

Roots develop galls, reducing water absorption. Plants show chlorosis, stunting, wilting, and reduced yield by up to 50%.

Control:

1. Crop rotation with Tagetes.
2. Soil solarization.
3. Flooding soil.
4. Apply nematicides (Furadan, Curater, etc.).
5. Plant resistant varieties.
6. Remove and burn infected plants.
7. Remove weeds.
8. Apply organic matter.

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3.5.2. Diseases Caused by Fungi

1. Fusarium Wilt

Infection begins at roots, spreads through xylem, causing blockage of water transport.

Symptoms:

Plants wilt during the day and recover at night, then wilt permanently.

Control:

1. Plant resistant varieties.
2. Apply transparent plastic mulch.
3. Use nematode-free soil.
4. Use clean tools.
5. Avoid planting Solanaceae repeatedly.
6. Remove and burn infected plants.
7. Graft tomatoes onto Solanum torvum or S. macrocarpon.

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2. Septoria Leaf Spot

Caused by Septoria lycopersici.

Symptoms:

Small watery circular spots on lower leaves, later turning gray with dark edges.

Control:

1. Remove plant debris.
2. Crop rotation.
3. Plant resistant varieties.
4. Apply fungicides (zineb, maneb).

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3. Leaf Mold

Caused by Fulvia fulva or Cladosporium fulvum.

Symptoms:

Pale chlorotic patches on upper leaf surfaces; olive-brown spores on undersides.

Control:

1. Plant resistant varieties.
2. Avoid planting in rainy season.
3. Use fungicides (Mancozeb, Benomyl).
4. Biological control with Penicillium, Trichoderma, etc.
5. Crop rotation.

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4. Early Blight

Caused by Alternaria solani.

Symptoms:

Brown concentric leaf spots; severe infection causes leaf drop and fruit rot.

Control:

1. Use disease-free seeds.
2. Remove infected plants.
3. Do not bury Solanaceae residues.
4. Crop rotation.
5. Use clean irrigation water.
6. Good drainage.
7. Weed control.
8. Avoid dense planting.
9. Apply fungicides.

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5. Late Blight

Caused by Phytophthora infestans.

Symptoms:

Dark lesions on leaves and fruit.

Control:

1. Remove and burn infected plants.
2. Do not bury infected material.
3. Plant resistant varieties.
4. Crop rotation.
5. Soil solarization.
6. Use fungicides.

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6. Rhizoctonia Fruit Rot

Caused by Thanatephorus cucumeris.

Symptoms:

Sunken brown circular lesions with concentric rings.

Control:

1. Use clean irrigation water.
2. Avoid deep planting.
3. Use stakes.
4. Apply plastic mulch.
5. Plant resistant varieties.
6. Crop rotation.
7. Remove plant debris.
8. Apply fungicide (chlorothalonil).

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7. Anthracnose

Caused by Colletotrichum coccodes.

Symptoms:

Sunken brown circular fruit lesions with concentric rings; root and stem infection causes browning and wilting.

Control:

1. Do not bury infected residue.
2. Rotate crops for 1–2 years.
3. Use mulch and stakes.
4. Plant resistant varieties.
5. Apply fungicides (captan/captafol).

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3.5.3. Bacterial Diseases

1. Bacterial Wilt

Caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum.

Symptoms:

Rapid wilting with green leaves, downward leaf rolling, stunting, adventitious roots, plant collapse.

Control:

1. Crop rotation; avoid Solanaceae.
2. Weed removal.
3. Plant resistant varieties.
4. Grafting.
5. Apply antibiotics.
6. Burn infected plants.
7. Soil solarization.

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2. Bacterial Canker / Bacterial Spot

Symptoms:

Small water-soaked lesions on leaves and stems; sunken gray lesions; curling leaves; gray stem streaks; corky fruit spots.

Control:

1. Crop rotation.
2. Use healthy seeds.
3. Plant resistant varieties.
4. Remove and burn infected plants.
5. Do not bury infected residues.
6. Use clean irrigation water.

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Additional diseases:

Tomatoes may also be affected by viral diseases (tomato mosaic, cucumber mosaic) and physiological disorders such as blossom end rot, sunscald, cracking, puffiness, and nutrient imbalances.

The major disease affecting Artaloka tomato variety is late blight.

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3.6. Harvesting

3.6.1. Harvest Signs and Age

Tomatoes can be harvested at 60–100 days after planting depending on variety. Indeterminate varieties mature at 70–100 days.

Optimal harvest indicators:

a) Fruit skin turns from green to yellowish.

b) Edges of older leaves dry.

c) Stem turns yellowish or dry.

Harvesting is best done in the morning or afternoon during clear weather. Midday harvesting reduces quality due to high respiration and transpiration.

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3.6.2. Harvesting Method

Fruits are harvested by gently twisting them until the pedicel breaks. Harvest only mature fruits and place them into baskets in a shaded collection area.

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3.6.3. Harvest Period

Tomatoes ripen unevenly, so harvesting is done 2–3-day intervals for up to 10 harvest rounds.

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3.7. Postharvest Handling

3.7.1. Collection

Tomatoes must be cleaned immediately from dust, soil, pesticide residues, etc. Washing may use neutral cleaners (Brogdex, Britex wax).

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3.7.2. Sorting and Grading

Sorting separates large, healthy fruits from small or defective ones.

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3.7.3. Storage

Storage aims to reduce respiration and transpiration.

Methods:

a) Cold storage (48–50°F; 85–90% humidity).

b) Ventilated room storage.

c) Vacuum storage.

d) Submerging in running or static water.

e) Ice storage.

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3.7.4. Packaging and Transportation

Packaging and transportation are two closely related activities aimed at protecting tomatoes from mechanical damage (such as abrasion or impact during transport). Therefore, both processes must be carried out carefully to ensure that the fruit quality—maintained during cleaning, sorting and grading, and storage—remains preserved during packaging and transport.

Important considerations in packaging include:

a) Packaging containers must be clean.

b) Packaging containers should be made of strong yet lightweight materials.

c) The volume of tomatoes must not exceed the container’s capacity.

d) Avoid protruding nails or uneven wooden boards inside the packaging container.

e) Provide protective padding on the bottom and sides of the container using dry straw or shredded paper.

f) The packaging container must have ventilation holes on its walls.

g) Arrange tomatoes neatly inside the container according to its capacity.

h) Close the container securely by tying or nailing it.

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IV. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TOMATO CULTIVATION

4.1. Overview of Agribusiness Opportunities

Tomatoes, as one of the major vegetable commodities, have promising market prospects. This can be observed from the wide range of tomato-based uses in society. Market potential is also supported by tomato prices that remain affordable for all economic levels, thus increasing market absorption. Population growth, improved education, greater nutritional awareness, and rising incomes further contribute to increased tomato demand. In addition, advances in the food-processing industry significantly enhance market absorption, while improvements in transportation systems provide stronger support for distribution and marketing.

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V. PRODUCTION STANDARDS

5.1. Scope

This standard covers the classification and quality requirements, methods of quality testing, sampling procedures, and packaging methods for tomatoes.

5.2. Description

Quality standards for fresh tomatoes are specified in the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) 01-3162-1992.

5.3. Classification and Quality Standards

According to quality grade, fresh tomatoes are classified into two categories: Grade I and Grade II.

1. Varietal characteristics:
• Grade I = uniform
• Grade II = uniform
2. Maturity level:
• Grade I = mature, not overly soft
• Grade II = mature, not overly soft
3. Size:
• Grade I = uniform
• Grade II = uniform
4. Foreign matter:
• Grade I = none
• Grade II = none
5. Damage (% by count):
• Grade I = max. 5%
• Grade II = max. 10%
6. Decay (% by count):
• Grade I = max. 1%
• Grade II = max. 1%

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5.4. Sampling Procedure

Samples are taken randomly from a number of packaging units as specified below. From each unit, 20 heads (krop) are taken from the top, middle, and bottom sections. For testing damage and decay, the final number of samples examined is 100 heads. Sampling is conducted in the field.

The number of packaging units examined in each lot is as follows:

a) For 1–100 units: 5 samples

b) For 101–300 units: 7 samples

c) For 301–500 units: 9 samples

d) For 501–1000 units: 10 samples

e) For more than 1000 units: minimum 15 samples

Sampling personnel must meet the following requirements: experienced or previously trained individuals who are affiliated with a legal entity.

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5.5. Packaging

Products are typically packaged using perforated polyethylene. These smaller packages are then placed into cardboard boxes or plastic crates.

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VI. REFERENCES

1.   Cahyono, Bambang. Tomat:budidaya dan analisis usaha tani.Yogyakarta:Kanisius,1998.

2.   Pracaya. Bertanam tomat. Yogyakarta : Kanisius,1998.

3.   Balai Penelitian Tanaman Sayuran. Budidaya Tanaman Tomat. Malang: Balitsa,1997.

 

RESOURCE:

Budidaya Tomat Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. https://atanitokyo.blogspot.com/2008/12/budi-daya-tomat-lycopersicon-esculentum.html

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