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I. THE EARLY ARRIVAL OF ISLAM IN JAPAN
Throughout Japanese history, which has been predominantly influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Shintoism, Islam was not originally part of the religious life of Japanese society. Furthermore, Japan adopted a policy of national isolation for approximately two hundred years, beginning in the mid-seventeenth century, which prevented any significant contact between Japan and the Islamic world. This situation contributed to the slow introduction of Islam into Japan.
When Japan emerged from its period of isolation during the Meiji Era, the Japanese people first learned about Islam through their neighboring country, China, particularly through Chinese publications. In addition, knowledge about Islam was obtained through books written by European scholars, which further encouraged Japanese intellectuals to study Chinese sources concerning Islam.
The exact time when Islam was first introduced to Japan remains uncertain. One reason for this uncertainty is that, except during certain periods in the history of the Middle East, the spread of Islam was generally not conducted through organized missionary efforts. Especially in the modern era, Muslim individuals established extensive interactions with local communities through international trade and cross-border relations.
In Japan’s case, encounters between Japanese individuals and Muslims did not initially occur within Japan itself but rather in foreign countries. Likewise, much of the literature on Islam that entered Japan after the Meiji Restoration consisted of works written by Chinese authors or Chinese-language books that were subsequently translated into Japanese.
1.1. The Mysterious Footprints of Islam in Japan: Periodization According to Abu Bakar Morimoto
Interactions between Islam and Japan can be divided into several historical periods. Various scholars of Islam in Japan have proposed different periodizations. Among them, Abu Bakar Morimoto, in his book Islam in Japan: Its Past, Present and Future, argues that the relationship between Islam and Japan is relatively recent compared to the historical interactions between Islam and countries in Asia, Africa, and Europe.
To better understand this relationship, the history of Islam in Japan can be divided into several periods.
A. The Period Between the Meiji Restoration and the End of World War II
With the beginning of the Meiji Restoration, Japan rapidly embraced and absorbed Western knowledge and technology. Through this exposure, the Japanese also became more familiar with Western religions. Christianity, in particular, exerted a strong influence on Japanese society through the activities of Christian missionaries.
However, interest gradually expanded to Islam when Japanese translations of books about the life of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) became available. As a result, Islam gained recognition among Japanese intellectuals, primarily as a subject of academic study and cultural history.
Another important development occurred in 1890 when the Ottoman Empire sent a naval warship to Japan on a goodwill mission. This event became a pioneering milestone in the relationship between the two nations and marked one of the earliest direct contacts between Muslims and the Japanese people. The mission paved the way for diplomatic relations between Japan and Turkey.
On its return voyage to Turkey, the Ottoman vessel encountered a maritime disaster. Upon learning of the tragedy, the Japanese people organized rescue efforts and provided assistance to the survivors.
The first Muslim communities in Japan emerged with the arrival of several hundred Turkish, Uzbek, Tajik, Kyrgyz, Kazakh, and Tatar Muslim refugees from Central Asia and Russia during the Bolshevik Revolution. These refugees were granted protection in Japan and established new lives in cities such as Tokyo, Kobe, and Nagoya.
After settling peacefully, they formed local Muslim communities and began conducting religious activities. Interaction between these Muslim immigrants and local Japanese residents eventually led to the conversion of some Japanese individuals to Islam.
During World War II, Japanese military personnel established direct contact with Muslim populations in territories under Japanese occupation, including regions in China and Southeast Asia. These interactions contributed to the establishment of several research centers and organizations dedicated to the study of Islam and the Muslim world in Japan.
The primary purpose of these institutions, however, was not to promote Islam but rather to provide Japanese military personnel with a better understanding of Islamic societies and cultures.
B. The Period After World War II
Under Japan’s new constitution, officially promulgated after World War II, freedom of religion was guaranteed for all Japanese citizens. Consequently, the government, public institutions, and administrative bodies were separated from any privileged association with a particular religion, including Shinto. At the same time, individuals were granted the freedom to believe in, practice, and propagate the religion of their choice. As a result, numerous religious organizations began to emerge throughout the country.
Following the end of the war, many Muslim-majority nations in Asia and Africa gained independence. Diplomatic, economic, and cultural exchanges between Japan and these newly independent Muslim countries gradually increased. These interactions brought Muslim government officials, scholars, businesspeople, students, and professionals to Japan. Likewise, increasing numbers of Japanese citizens traveled to Muslim countries.
During this period, many Japanese developed a growing interest in the Arabic language and Islamic teachings. Young Japanese students began traveling to Arab and other Muslim countries to study Arabic and Islam. Upon returning to Japan, some of them became educators and advocates who shared their knowledge with Japanese society.
Diplomatic representatives from Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Egypt, Pakistan, Libya, Iran, Malaysia, and Indonesia actively supported Islamic activities in Japan. Among the most prominent Japanese Muslims was Hajj Umar Mita, who published a Japanese translation of the Holy Qur’an. His translation project received support from the Rabita al-Alam al-Islami (Muslim World League).
After World War II, Japan’s industrial sector suffered extensive damage. In rebuilding its economy, Japan became heavily dependent on oil imports, with approximately 99.8 percent of its oil supply originating from Muslim countries in the Middle East and Asia. This dependence on energy resources compelled Japan to strengthen its engagement with the Muslim world.
During the period known as the “Arab Boom” of 1973, Japanese mass media devoted extensive coverage to the Muslim world in general and the Arab world in particular. This heightened attention stemmed from Japan’s recognition of the strategic importance of Arab countries to its economy.
Through this media exposure, many Japanese people became familiar with Islam for the first time. They witnessed images of the Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca, heard the call to prayer (adhan), and listened to Qur’anic recitations. As a result, serious academic interest in Islam increased, and a growing number of Japanese individuals embraced the faith.
1.2. The Periodization of Japan’s Encounter with Islam According to Arifin Bey
In his book The Role of Japan in the Post-American Era, Arifin Bey divides Japan’s encounter with Islam into several historical periods.
1. First Period: The Visit of the Ottoman Warship to Japan (1889–1890)
Twenty-three years after the Meiji Restoration, in 1889, the Ottoman Sultanate dispatched a goodwill mission to Japan under the leadership of Admiral Osman Pasha. The mission arrived in Japan in early June of the following year aboard the warship Ertuğrul, commanded by Naval Colonel Ali and carrying 607 Ottoman naval personnel.
The mission received a remarkably warm reception from the Japanese government, navy, and people.
After spending three months in Japan, the delegation departed from Yokohama on September 14, 1890, during the height of the typhoon season. Two days later, on the night of September 16, the Ertuğrul encountered a violent storm south of the Kii Peninsula and was wrecked.
Of the mission members, approximately 540—including Admiral Osman Pasha and the ship’s captain—lost their lives despite extensive rescue efforts undertaken by the Japanese authorities. The Japanese central government even dispatched two naval vessels to assist in rescue operations.
This tragic event marked Japan’s first significant experience in establishing friendship with an Islamic nation.
At the time of the disaster, a 24-year-old Japanese man named Yamada Torajiro was deeply moved by the tragedy. As an educated youth of the Meiji era, Yamada had studied Chinese as well as several European languages, including English, German, and French.
Determined to assist the victims’ families, he organized a fundraising campaign throughout Japan. After collecting substantial donations, he approached Foreign Minister Aoki Shuzo and requested that the Japanese government deliver the funds to Turkey.
The minister suggested that Yamada personally travel to Turkey to present the donations. Coincidentally, Japan was preparing to send naval personnel to France to retrieve a newly purchased warship. Yamada joined the mission as far as Port Said and then continued overland to Istanbul.
Arriving during the month of Ramadan, he formally presented the donations to the Ottoman Minister of the Navy in a solemn ceremony.
In recognition of his efforts, the Ottoman Sultan awarded Yamada a medal of honor. The Ottoman Minister of the Navy also requested that he remain in Turkey to teach Japanese to seven military officers. One of those officers was Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who would later become the founder of modern Turkey.
In 1931, Yamada returned to Turkey at the invitation of President Atatürk. During this period, he became increasingly interested in Islamic culture, embraced Islam, and adopted the name Abdul Halim.
After completing his teaching assignment, he returned to Japan but later revisited Turkey to strengthen trade and cultural ties between the two countries. Altogether, Yamada spent nearly twenty years in Turkey and passed away in Japan in 1957 at the age of ninety-one.
2. Second Period: The Russo-Japanese War and the Arrival of Russian Prisoners of War
During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, Japan captured tens of thousands of Russian soldiers. Approximately 71,947 prisoners of war were transported to Japan and housed in various camps throughout the country.
Among them, around 28,000 prisoners were held near Osaka. It is estimated that nearly one thousand of these prisoners were Tatars who practiced Islam.
In an effort to maintain a positive international reputation, the Japanese government provided places of worship for prisoners according to their respective religions. These included Eastern Orthodox churches, Catholic churches, Protestant churches, Jewish synagogues, and mosques.
Through interactions with prisoners from different religious backgrounds, Japanese society gained firsthand exposure to various faiths. For many Japanese, this represented their first direct encounter with Islam beyond books and academic discussions.
3. Third Period: The Arrival of Tatar Muslim Refugees During the Bolshevik Revolution
Following the Bolshevik Revolution, many Tatar Muslims fled Russia and sought refuge in Japan. Although their exact number remains unknown, these refugees played a crucial role in the establishment of Islam in Japan.
They were instrumental in the construction of important mosques in Kobe and Tokyo, with support from Indian Muslim communities and the Japanese government.
The revolution also led to the arrival of hundreds of Muslim refugees from Turkey, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and other parts of Central Asia and Russia.
The Japanese government granted asylum to these refugees, who settled in major cities and formed small Muslim communities. Through their interactions with local residents, a number of Japanese individuals converted to Islam.
This period witnessed the construction of two of Japan’s most significant mosques:
· Kobe Mosque (1935)
· Tokyo Mosque (1938)
However, Japanese Muslims themselves played only a limited role in these projects, and none served as the imam of these mosques during that era.
4. Fourth Period: The Korean War and the Presence of Turkish Troops
During the Korean War, Turkey sent military forces to support United Nations operations.
Turkish soldiers who were wounded or granted leave were often sent to Japan for treatment and recreation. Through their interactions with these soldiers, Japanese society gained broader exposure to Islam and Muslim culture.
These encounters contributed to a deeper understanding of Islam among the Japanese people and further expanded awareness of the Muslim world.
5. Fifth Period: The Growing Number of Japanese Converts to Islam
The fifth phase is characterized by the increasing number of Japanese people embracing Islam and the establishment of Islamic organizations within Japan.
Among these organizations were:
· The Islamic Culture Society, chaired by Abu Bakar Morimoto.
· The Japan Islamic Congress, chaired by Dr. Shawqi Futaki.
In 1932, seventeen Japanese scholars specializing in Islamic studies agreed to establish the Institute of Islamic Studies with the objective of introducing Islam to the broader Japanese public.
To support this mission, the institute published two journals:
1. Islam Bunka no Hiroba (Japanese-language edition)
2. Islamic Culture Forum (English-language edition)
The English-language publication aimed to strengthen relationships with Islamic organizations abroad, while the Japanese-language journal sought to educate and inform the domestic audience.
1.3. The Periodization of Japan’s Encounter with Islam According to Dr. Jamhari Makruf
In his book The Indonesian Muslim Perspective on Japan, published by the Japan Foundation, Dr. Jamhari Makruf explains that the interaction between Japan and the Islamic world can be broadly divided into two major periods.
1. First Period: The Colonial Era and Japan’s Nanshin (“Southward Expansion”) Policy
During the era of imperial expansion, Japan sought to extend its influence into the southern regions of Asia, many of which were predominantly Muslim. To gain support and sympathy from Muslim populations, Japan adopted several strategic measures designed to foster positive relations with Islamic communities.
Japan’s invasions of China and Southeast Asian countries during World War II enabled Japanese soldiers, officials, and civilians to interact directly with Muslims. Through these encounters, some Japanese individuals embraced Islam.
These early Japanese converts later formed the foundation of a more organized Muslim community. In 1953, the first major Muslim organization in Japan, the Japan Muslim Association, was established under the leadership of Umar Mita.
Umar Mita represented the older generation of Japanese Muslims who had learned about Islam in territories occupied by Japan during the war. While working for the South Manchurian Railway Company in China, he frequently interacted with Chinese Muslims in Beijing. Through these interactions, he embraced Islam and later became one of the most influential figures in the development of Islam in Japan.
Accounts from the wartime period also indicate that some Japanese soldiers operating in Muslim regions such as Malaya were instructed to recite the Islamic declaration of faith (La ilaha illallah) to gain the trust of local Muslim communities. In some cases, Japanese soldiers who remained in Southeast Asia after the war continued practicing Islamic traditions and became part of what later became known as the "older generation" of Japanese Muslims.
2. Second Period: Japan’s Economic Boom of the 1970s
Following its remarkable post-war recovery, Japan emerged as a global economic powerhouse. However, despite its technological and industrial achievements, Japan remained heavily dependent on imported oil.
During the oil crisis of the 1970s, when several oil-producing countries imposed oil embargoes, Japan faced significant economic challenges due to its heavy dependence on imported energy resources. This situation encouraged Japanese policymakers, academics, and business leaders to develop a deeper understanding of the Islamic world and the Middle East.
Consequently, scholarly interest in Islam, Arabic language studies, and Middle Eastern affairs increased significantly. Universities expanded programs related to Islamic studies, and diplomatic as well as economic relations with Muslim-majority countries intensified.
This period marked the beginning of a broader Japanese awareness of Islam beyond purely academic circles and contributed substantially to the growth of Muslim communities in Japan.
The First Japanese Muslims
One of the earliest documented Japanese converts to Islam was Yoshi Imaizumi, a mechanical engineer who graduated from Nihon University in Tokyo.
He embraced Islam in 1926 at the age of twenty-four and adopted the name Sadiq Yoshio Imaizumi.
His conversion was influenced by Abdurreshid Ibrahim, a prominent Muslim activist from Turkestan who arrived in Japan in 1908 seeking support for the liberation of Muslim territories under Russian rule.
However, before Imaizumi, three other Japanese individuals had already converted to Islam.
1. Mitsutaro Takaoka
Mitsutaro Takaoka Mitsutaro Takaoka embraced Islam in 1909. After performing the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, he adopted the name Omar Yamaoka.
2. Bunpachiro Ariga
While conducting business in India, Bunpachiro Ariga Bunpachiro Ariga interacted extensively with local Muslim communities. Influenced by these interactions, he converted to Islam and adopted the name Ahmad Ariga.
3. Torajiro Yamada
Torajiro Yamada Torajiro Yamada visited Turkey several times. During one of these visits, he embraced Islam and adopted the name Abdul Khalil (also recorded in some sources as Abdul Halim). He later continued working to strengthen relations between Japan and Turkey.
II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAM IN JAPAN
The development of Islam in Japan has not been an easy process. Japanese society has traditionally been deeply influenced by Shinto customs and cultural traditions. Furthermore, Islamic propagation (da‘wah) initially occurred on a limited and informal basis, often without significant financial support or organizational structures.
Despite these challenges, the number of Muslims gradually increased. Japan’s expanding international relations after World War II, particularly with Muslim-majority countries, facilitated the arrival of increasing numbers of Muslims from abroad. Their presence contributed significantly to the growth and development of Islam in Japan.
Numerous Islamic organizations subsequently emerged, providing support for religious education, social activities, and community development.
The relatively slow growth of Islam in Japan can largely be attributed to external factors, including the strong influence of traditional Japanese religious culture and the highly materialistic orientation of modern Japanese society.
Another factor is the difference in outlook between older and younger generations of Japanese Muslims.
The older generation tended to associate Islam primarily with countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, and China, where many of them first encountered the religion.
By contrast, younger Japanese Muslims have often looked toward the Middle East and Arab countries as their primary reference points for understanding Islam.
The older generation benefited from direct interaction with non-Japanese Muslims and developed strong experiences of Islamic brotherhood. However, this also had an unintended consequence: Islam often remained perceived as a foreign religion rather than an indigenous component of Japanese society.
This perception has posed a challenge for newer generations of Japanese Muslims seeking to establish Islam as a faith that can naturally coexist within Japanese culture.
Islam and Contemporary Japanese Society
For many Japanese individuals, Islam has provided new spiritual guidance amid the pressures of modern life. Nevertheless, misconceptions about Islam continue to exist.
Some Japanese people still view Islam as an unfamiliar religion associated primarily with developing countries. Such perceptions have been influenced by historical Westernization and the dominance of Christian cultural narratives in modern global discourse.
These misunderstandings have sometimes been reinforced by inaccurate media portrayals. However, as information becomes more accessible and the Muslim population continues to grow, public understanding of Islam has gradually improved.
Many observers believe that Islam will become increasingly accepted in Japan in the future. One important factor is the growing number of marriages between Muslims and Japanese citizens.
Another contributing factor is the increasing number of Japanese students who choose to study in universities located in Arab and other Muslim-majority countries.
Universities within Japan have also witnessed the emergence of small discussion groups and academic communities dedicated to the study of religion and Islam. These initiatives help address the shortage of institutions capable of providing accurate information about Islamic beliefs and practices.
In addition, Muslim organizations and Islamic centers have played a crucial role in maintaining solidarity among Japanese Muslims and promoting a better understanding of Islam through dialogue, seminars, conferences, and educational activities.
Paths of Islamic Growth in Japan
Islam in Japan has spread primarily through two channels:
1. Marriage
Many Muslim immigrants, particularly men, have married Japanese women. In numerous cases, these marriages have led to the conversion of Japanese spouses to Islam.
According to R. Siddiqi, Director of the Islamic Center Japan:
“Women are attracted to Islam because they seek freedom. Islam grants them dignity and independence, ensuring that they are not treated as the property of any man. Islam opposes moral exploitation and protects women's honor and chastity. These values attract many Japanese women.”
Reports from the Islamic Center Japan indicate that dozens of marriages between foreign Muslims and Japanese women occur annually.
2. Da‘wah (Islamic Outreach)
According to Professor Hassan Ko Nakata, the most effective way to spread Islam in Japan is through personal example.
Individuals engaged in Islamic outreach should possess deep knowledge of Islam, exemplary character, and a thorough understanding of Japanese culture.
Da‘wah activities are frequently carried out by students, professionals, and community organizations in major cities such as:
· Hiroshima
· Kyoto
· Nagoya
· Osaka
· Tokyo
These communities work together to strengthen Islamic understanding and foster brotherhood among Muslims living in Japan.
2.1. Islamic Outreach (Da‘wah) in Japan
The development of Islam and Muslim communities in Japan was initially pioneered by Muslims from Turkey, India, and Arab countries. One of their primary strategies for spreading Islamic teachings was the establishment of mosques, which served not only as places of worship but also as centers for education, community development, and religious outreach.
In addition to building mosques, Muslims in Japan established various Islamic organizations to promote awareness and understanding of Islam. These organizations gradually emerged over time, beginning with the formation of the Japan Muslim Association. Their activities included religious education, cultural exchanges, community services, and efforts to strengthen relationships between Muslims and Japanese society.
Students and professionals constituted one of the largest groups involved in Islamic outreach activities. Concentrating their efforts in major cities such as Hiroshima, Kyoto, Nagoya, Osaka, and Tokyo, they organized educational programs, study circles, seminars, and social gatherings aimed at improving Islamic knowledge and fostering solidarity among Muslims.
Muslim student associations at Japanese universities frequently established campus-based organizations. Through these organizations, members worked collectively to deepen their understanding of Islam, improve their ability to communicate Islamic teachings, and strengthen bonds of brotherhood among Muslims from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Islamic outreach activities are particularly important in Japan because they help improve religious knowledge and enhance the quality of life within Muslim communities. Without proper guidance and educational support, Muslim communities may become vulnerable to misunderstandings, misinformation, or deviations from Islamic teachings.
One concern is the possibility of Muslims gradually assimilating into non-Islamic religious practices due to limited religious education. This issue is particularly relevant for Muslim children who attend public schools where Islamic educational facilities are scarce. Without sufficient religious support, they may be more susceptible to cultural influences that conflict with Islamic values.
To address these challenges, Muslim communities have undertaken various initiatives, including converting houses and commercial buildings into mosques and Islamic learning centers where children can receive religious education.
Furthermore, to counter misconceptions about Islam often perpetuated by Western media, Muslim organizations have translated the Qur’an into Japanese and published numerous books on Islamic teachings. These publications are available in bookstores throughout Japan, although they are often relatively expensive.
2.2. Islamic Architecture: Mosques in Japan
In Japan, mosques serve not only as places of worship but also as centers for community gathering, information exchange, education, and social interaction.
Although substantial financial resources are required to purchase land and construct mosque buildings, funding generally comes from local Muslim communities. Some mosques also receive donations from individuals and Islamic organizations abroad.
While certain mosques reflect the ethnic backgrounds of their founding communities, most mosques in Japan are highly inclusive and multicultural. Because Muslims represent a small minority in Japan and no single ethnic group dominates the Muslim population, Japanese mosques often bring together people of diverse nationalities, languages, schools of thought, and religious traditions.
Pakistani Muslims have historically played a prominent role in mosque administration and development. However, mosques also welcome Muslims from Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Arab countries, Turkey, and Japan itself.
As a result, multiple languages are commonly spoken within Japanese mosques, including:
· Japanese
· English
· Urdu
· Hindi
· Bengali
· Indonesian
· Arabic
Friday sermons are often delivered in the imam’s native language and subsequently translated by volunteers when necessary. Many mosques also provide Japanese and English translations of important sermons through websites and printed materials.
As Japan’s Muslim population has expanded, communication among Muslims from different linguistic backgrounds has become increasingly important. English often serves as a common language in many mosque communities, especially among students and professionals from diverse countries.
Mosques in Japan are multifunctional facilities. In addition to prayer halls, many mosques contain:
· Administrative offices
· Libraries
· Computer facilities
· Kitchens
· Meeting rooms
· Recreation areas
· Accommodation for visitors
Consequently, mosques are frequently used not only for daily prayers and religious gatherings but also for weddings, funerals, educational programs, community meetings, and business networking.
During Ramadan, mosques become especially active as families gather to break their fast (iftar) together and participate in communal worship.
The Growth of Mosques in Japan
Due to the high cost of land and construction, many early mosques were established by renovating existing buildings such as warehouses, factories, offices, or residential properties.
Typically, these conversions included:
· Creating a large congregational prayer hall
· Installing a mihrab indicating the direction of Mecca
· Constructing a minbar for sermons
· Providing facilities for ablution (wudu)
· Designating separate prayer areas for women
Maintenance and operational expenses generally rely on donations from local Muslim communities.
In 1992, only a limited number of active mosques existed in Japan. However, as increasing numbers of Muslims obtained long-term residency and settled permanently, the demand for religious facilities grew substantially.
Many Muslim immigrants married Japanese citizens, established businesses, and raised families in Japan. As permanent residents, they responded to the shortage of worship facilities by establishing new mosques throughout the country.
By 2007, at least thirty-eight mosques had been established across Japan.
Notable examples include:
· Kobe Mosque (1935)
· Tokyo Mosque (1938; rebuilt in 2000)
· Hiroo Mosque (2001)
Many additional mosques were established in prefectures such as:
· Tokyo
· Chiba
· Saitama
· Kanagawa
· Gunma
· Tochigi
· Niigata
· Toyama
· Aichi
· Shizuoka
· Osaka
· Kyoto
· Hyogo
· Hiroshima
· Fukuoka
Among Muslim communities in Japan, Pakistanis have played a particularly significant role in mosque construction and administration. Organizations such as the Islamic Circle of Japan and the Japan Islamic Trust have been instrumental in funding, operating, and expanding mosque networks throughout the country.
The Japanese government officially recognizes several mosques and Islamic organizations as religious institutions, enabling them to operate under favorable legal and tax arrangements.
2.3. Social Life and Challenges of Muslims in Japan
Islam is fundamentally a community-oriented religion. However, because Muslims constitute a small minority in Japan, they face a number of social and practical challenges.
Access to Halal Food
One of the most significant challenges for Muslims in Japan is obtaining halal food.
At home, Muslims can prepare meals according to Islamic dietary requirements. However, dining outside the home is often more complicated because many Japanese people have limited awareness of halal dietary restrictions.
Muslims are prohibited from consuming pork and are required to eat meat prepared according to Islamic law (halal). Consequently, many observant Muslims avoid purchasing meat from ordinary Japanese supermarkets unless halal certification can be verified.
In cooperation with Japanese businesses, Muslim entrepreneurs began establishing halal food stores during the late 1990s.
By 1998–1999, surveys indicated the existence of approximately eighty halal food stores throughout Japan. Many of these businesses were operated by immigrants from South Asia, particularly Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Daily Prayers and Religious Practice
Another major challenge involves observing the five daily prayers required in Islam.
Muslims who are less strict in their religious observance often find it easier to adapt to Japanese social norms. More observant Muslims, however, sometimes encounter difficulties finding suitable places to pray.
Some Muslims have reported being asked to leave public spaces when attempting to perform prayers. Others have noted that people occasionally stare at them with curiosity or suspicion while they are praying.
Workplace accommodations vary considerably. While many Japanese employers are understanding and allow Muslim employees time and space for prayer, there is generally no legal obligation requiring employers to provide such accommodations.
Workplace Discrimination
Instances of discrimination occasionally occur.
Some Muslim workers have reported restrictions on religious practices such as prayer and fasting. Although severe cases are relatively uncommon, concerns remain regarding the limited legal protections available to Muslims facing religious discrimination in the workplace.
Nevertheless, many Japanese people are respectful of religious diversity and willing to accommodate Muslim practices once they understand their significance.
Challenges for Japanese Muslim Women
Japanese women who convert to Islam often face unique challenges.
In some cases, family members and friends react negatively to their conversion, leading to social isolation or strained relationships. Conversion to Islam frequently requires substantial lifestyle changes, which may be difficult for family members to understand.
Many Japanese women who embrace Islam do so through marriage. Others are attracted to Islamic teachings because they perceive Islam as offering dignity, respect, and protection for women.
The wearing of the hijab can also present challenges. Some Japanese people associate Islamic dress with oppression and therefore view it negatively. As a result, Muslim women who wear the hijab may experience social pressure, criticism, or misunderstanding.
Despite these difficulties, Islamic fashion has developed its own niche within Japan. Muslim women increasingly adapt modest clothing styles to Japanese aesthetics, creating unique forms of Islamic fashion that combine religious observance with local cultural preferences.
Social Integration and Cultural Differences
Muslims in Japan must also navigate cultural practices that differ significantly from Islamic teachings.
One example is alcohol consumption. Drinking alcohol plays an important role in many Japanese social and business settings. Corporate gatherings frequently involve drinking sessions intended to strengthen workplace relationships and build trust among colleagues.
Muslims who abstain from alcohol may sometimes feel excluded from these social interactions. In certain industries, refusing to participate in drinking events can potentially affect professional networking opportunities.
Nevertheless, many Muslims successfully maintain their religious commitments while participating constructively in Japanese society.
A Climate of Coexistence
Despite the challenges faced by Muslims in Japan, there is generally little hostility between Muslims and non-Muslims.
Negative perceptions of Islam often stem more from unfamiliarity and lack of knowledge than from deliberate prejudice. When Japanese people have opportunities to interact personally with Muslims, their perceptions frequently become more positive.
Many Muslims living in Japan acknowledge this reality and respond with patience and understanding. They recognize that most misunderstandings arise not from malice but from limited exposure to Islamic beliefs and practices.
As a result, interfaith dialogue, cultural exchange, and educational initiatives continue to play a crucial role in fostering mutual understanding between Muslims and the wider Japanese society.
III. JAPAN AND THE ISLAMIC WORLD
This chapter explores Japan’s historical and contemporary relations with the Islamic world. It highlights the evolution of Japan’s interactions with Muslim-majority countries, beginning with the Ottoman Empire and extending to the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia. These relationships have developed through diplomacy, trade, cultural exchange, energy cooperation, and mutual understanding.
Japan’s engagement with the Islamic world has never been limited to economics alone. Rather, it has been shaped by historical encounters, geopolitical interests, and growing cultural exchanges that have contributed to stronger ties between Japan and Muslim societies.
3.1. Japan’s Relations with Turkey
Direct contact between Japan and the Ottoman Empire began shortly after the Meiji Restoration of 1868. During this period, Japan’s new leadership sought to modernize the nation and learn from foreign countries.
As part of this effort, the Japanese government dispatched the famous Iwakura Mission between 1871 and 1873 to study political, economic, and technological developments abroad. During this mission, Japanese officials became increasingly interested in the Ottoman Empire and its strategic position between Europe and Asia.
One of the earliest Japanese visitors to Istanbul was Fukuchi Genichiro, secretary of the Iwakura Mission, who traveled there to observe the political and social conditions of the Ottoman Empire. Following his visit, Japanese diplomats, travelers, scholars, and military officers increasingly journeyed to Ottoman territories and the broader Middle East.
From the Japanese perspective, relations with Turkey represented Japan’s first substantial encounter with the Islamic world. The Ottoman Empire exposed Japanese visitors to a multicultural environment where Islamic civilization interacted with European, Asian, and Mediterranean cultures.
Several Japanese diplomats and military observers documented their experiences in Turkey, including:
· Nakai Hiroshi
· Yoshida Masaharu
· Furukawa Nobuyoshi
· Fukushima Yasumasa
Their writings stimulated Japanese interest in Turkish society and Islamic civilization.
During the Meiji era, numerous books, articles, and illustrations about Turkey appeared in Japan. Even prominent political novelists incorporated Turkish and Islamic themes into their works.
The Ertuğrul Incident: A Foundation of Friendship
One of the most important milestones in Japanese-Turkish relations was the tragic voyage of the Ottoman warship Ertuğrul in 1890.
The Ottoman Sultan had dispatched the vessel to Japan as a diplomatic mission carrying decorations and messages of goodwill for Emperor Meiji.
After successfully completing its mission, the ship departed Japan but encountered a powerful typhoon near the Kii Peninsula. The vessel sank, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of crew members.
Only sixty-nine survivors were rescued.
The Japanese people responded with remarkable compassion. The survivors received extensive care and assistance, and the Japanese government arranged for their return to Istanbul aboard two Japanese naval vessels, Hiei and Kongo.
The tragedy created a lasting emotional bond between the peoples of Japan and Turkey.
Strengthening Bilateral Relations
Throughout the twentieth century, Japan and Turkey maintained warm and friendly relations despite occasionally finding themselves on opposing sides during the World Wars.
Their relationship was characterized not by hostility but by pragmatic geopolitical considerations and enduring mutual respect.
Beginning in the 1950s, diplomatic, economic, and cultural exchanges expanded considerably.
Japan provided economic assistance and technical support to Turkey, including participation in major infrastructure projects. One notable example was Japanese involvement in projects associated with the Bosphorus region.
Tourism also became an important bridge between the two nations, with large numbers of Japanese visitors traveling to Turkey and vice versa.
In January 2006, Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi Junichiro Koizumi visited Turkey and reaffirmed the long-standing friendship between the two countries.
Today, Japan-Turkey relations are often regarded as one of the strongest and most enduring partnerships between Japan and a Muslim-majority nation.
3.2. Japan’s Relations with the Middle East
Japan’s foreign policy toward the Middle East has evolved gradually over several decades.
One of the primary driving forces behind this relationship has been energy security. As a country with limited domestic energy resources, Japan relies heavily on imported oil.
For many years, approximately 90 percent of Japan’s crude oil imports originated from the Middle East. Consequently, stability in the region has been of critical importance to Japan’s economic well-being.
The Impact of Regional Conflicts
Several major events significantly influenced Japan’s interest in the Middle East, including:
· The Fourth Arab-Israeli War (1973)
· The Oil Crisis of the 1970s
· The Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988)
· The Gulf War (1990–1991)
These events highlighted Japan’s vulnerability to disruptions in energy supplies and encouraged greater diplomatic engagement with Middle Eastern countries.
Following the Gulf War, Japan began adopting a more active role in regional diplomacy and peace-building efforts.
Economic Cooperation
Japan and Middle Eastern countries have developed extensive economic partnerships.
Japan imports large quantities of oil and natural gas from the region, while many Middle Eastern countries import Japanese:
· Automobiles
· Electronics
· Industrial machinery
· Infrastructure technologies
These economic ties have generated strong mutual interdependence.
Contributions to Regional Stability
Japan has increasingly sought to contribute to peace and stability in the Middle East.
Japanese initiatives have included:
· Humanitarian assistance
· Reconstruction programs
· Medical cooperation
· Technical development projects
· Educational exchanges
One example is Japan’s cooperation with Egypt in supporting reconstruction efforts in Iraq.
Another is the “Corridor for Peace and Prosperity” initiative, which promotes economic development in the Jordan Valley and seeks to encourage peaceful coexistence between Israelis and Palestinians.
Cultural and Educational Exchanges
In recent decades, relations between Japan and Arab countries have expanded beyond economics.
The number of tourists traveling between Japan and Arab countries has increased steadily, while cultural exchange programs have fostered greater mutual understanding.
Many Arab countries have shown strong interest in:
· Japanese technology
· Educational systems
· Scientific research
· Industrial development models
Likewise, Japanese universities have expanded programs focusing on Arabic language, Islamic studies, and Middle Eastern affairs.
These exchanges have strengthened trust and cooperation between Japan and the Arab world.
3.3. Japan’s Relations with Indonesia
Relations between Japan and Indonesia have a long and complex history.
Initially, interactions between the two countries were shaped by Japanese expansion into Southeast Asia during World War II.
Japan promoted itself as the “Protector of Asia,” presenting its presence as a challenge to Western colonial powers. While this message inspired some Indonesian nationalists, it also served Japan’s own strategic interests and facilitated Japanese occupation of Indonesia.
Japan’s Engagement with Indonesian Muslims
To strengthen its position in Indonesia, Japan sought support from influential Muslim leaders, particularly Islamic scholars (kyai).
Unlike the Dutch colonial administration, which often regarded Islamic leaders with suspicion, Japan actively engaged religious figures and attempted to cultivate their support.
As part of these efforts, Japan conducted extensive studies of Islam in Southeast Asia, especially Indonesia.
Although these studies were primarily intended to gather political and social information, they contributed to the emergence of several important Islamic institutions, including:
· Masyumi
· Shumubu
· Shumuka
· Hizbullah
These organizations later played significant roles in Indonesia’s religious and political development.
Masyumi became one of Indonesia’s most influential Islamic political parties, while Shumubu and Shumuka eventually contributed to the establishment of Indonesia’s Ministry of Religious Affairs. Hizbullah later became integrated into Indonesia’s national military structure.
Post-War Reconciliation and Cooperation
Following World War II, Japan and Indonesia established peaceful diplomatic relations.
Both countries committed themselves to long-term friendship, security, and cooperation.
Their relationship was further strengthened by the spirit of Asian-African solidarity embodied in the historic Bandung Conference Bandung Conference held from 18 to 24 April 1955.
Since then, Japan and Indonesia have developed close cooperation in numerous fields.
Educational and Religious Exchanges
The Japanese government has supported initiatives aimed at promoting mutual understanding between Japan and Indonesian Muslims.
Such efforts have included:
· Visits to Islamic boarding schools (pesantren)
· Invitations for Indonesian Muslim scholars to visit Japan
· Exchange programs for future Muslim leaders
· Educational cooperation in science and technology
These programs have helped strengthen cultural understanding and build long-term partnerships between the two nations.
Political Relations
Japan has also maintained communication with Islamic political organizations in Indonesia.
Particular attention has been given to the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) Prosperous Justice Party, one of Indonesia’s most prominent Islamic-oriented political parties.
In return, PKS established representative activities in Japan through the PKS Information and Service Center (PIP PKS Japan), which serves Indonesian communities living abroad.
Its activities include:
· Providing information about PKS programs
· Facilitating social communication
· Promoting political diplomacy
· Building relationships with Japanese institutions, political parties, and civil society organizations
Conclusion
The relationship between Japan and the Islamic world has evolved from limited contact to multifaceted cooperation encompassing diplomacy, trade, education, culture, and religion.
From the historic friendship forged through the Ertuğrul tragedy, to Japan’s strategic engagement with the Middle East, and its deep partnership with Indonesia, these interactions have significantly shaped Japan’s understanding of Islam and Muslim societies.
As globalization continues to strengthen international connections, the relationship between Japan and the Islamic world is likely to become even more important, fostering greater mutual understanding, cultural exchange, and cooperation in the twenty-first century.
REFERENCES
Zulhilmy. (2008). The dynamics of the development of Islam in Japan in the 20th century. Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta.
Morimoto, A. (1980). Islam in Japan: Its past, present and future. Japan Muslim Association.
Jamhari, M. (2002). The Indonesian Muslim perspective on Japan. The Japan Foundation.
Yamauchi, M. (1996). The Green Crescent under the Rising Sun: Encounters between Japan and the Islamic World. University of Tokyo Press.
Tanada, H. (2010). Muslim communities in Japan. Waseda University Press.
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