Crisis of Rationality and Symbolic Inflation:
Interpreting the Decline of Reason in the Contemporary Public Sphere
ABSTRACT
The expansion of higher education, the increasing number
of academic degree holders, advances in information technology, and broader
public access to knowledge should, in principle, strengthen public rationality.
However, these developments do not necessarily coincide with improved societal
capacity to think critically, evaluate evidence, distinguish facts from
opinions, and make decisions based on long-term considerations. This article
examines this phenomenon as a crisis of rationality or a decline of
reason in the contemporary public sphere. The analysis draws on Immanuel
Kant’s concept of Sapere aude, which emphasizes the courage to use one’s
own reason, and René Descartes’ rationalism concerning the importance of
thinking as a foundation of knowledge. The study employs a
descriptive-qualitative approach through a conceptual and literature review of
rationality, credentialism, the public sphere, anomie, and evidence-based
policy. The discussion addresses five major manifestations: academic credential
inflation, the dominance of symbols over substance, pragmatism in political
life, the weak integration of scientific evidence into public policy, and
structural resistance to expertise. The article also examines brain drain
as one potential consequence of an ecosystem that provides insufficient support
for academic freedom, meritocracy, and evidence-based research. The analysis
indicates that the crisis of reason should not be understood merely as a
problem of individual intelligence, but rather as an institutional, cultural,
and ethical problem. Restoring rationality requires strengthening epistemic
literacy, academic integrity, evidence-based policymaking, scientific freedom,
government transparency, and citizens’ willingness to test claims against
evidence rather than relying solely on authority, popularity, or symbolic
status.
Keywords: Sapere
aude, rationality, critical reasoning, credential inflation, public sphere,
evidence-based policy, brain drain.
1. INTRODUCTION
“Sapere aude! Dare to use your own reason.” — Immanuel Kant.
The question of where human reason is heading has become
increasingly relevant in an era characterized, paradoxically, by unprecedented
access to knowledge. Contemporary individuals can access scientific journals,
books, statistical data, university lectures, policy reports, and a wide range
of other sources of knowledge through digital devices. The number of higher
education institutions has also expanded, as has the number of people obtaining
academic degrees. Yet, an abundance of information and academic credentials
does not automatically produce a more rational society.
This issue has, in fact, long been a concern of modern
philosophy. In his essay An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment?,
Kant argued that enlightenment involves humanity’s emergence from self-imposed
intellectual immaturity. Accordingly, Sapere aude is not merely an
invitation to become knowledgeable; it is a call to have the courage to use
one’s own capacity for reason responsibly (Kant, 1784).
Education, therefore, in its substantive sense, should
not end with the acquisition of a degree. It should cultivate the ability to
question assumptions, examine evidence, understand causal relationships,
recognize errors in reasoning, and make decisions responsibly. In this context,
an increase in the number of educated people may occur simultaneously with a
decline in the quality of public reasoning if educational systems place greater
emphasis on credentials than on the development of epistemic capacity.
The phenomenon becomes increasingly complex as the public
sphere is transformed into an arena of competition for attention. Social media
enables emotional, controversial, or sensational claims to spread much faster
than scientific explanations that require context and caution. Information that
is popular is not necessarily true, while information that is true is not
necessarily popular. Consequently, popularity may replace validity as a measure
of social acceptance.
This is where the question, “Where has my reason
gone?”, becomes particularly relevant. The question does not imply that
society has lost its intelligence. Rather, it points to a more fundamental
issue: whether human beings actually use their capacity for thought to evaluate
reality critically.
In politics, for example, the public may encounter
debates concerning the track records, educational backgrounds, integrity,
policies, and legitimacy of various public actors. Such debates often unfold
not through systematic examination of evidence, but through group loyalty,
political identity, video clips, memes, and repeated claims. Under such
conditions, facts may become subordinate to narratives.
In academia, the issue takes a different form. Doctoral
degrees, professorships, publications, citation indices, and other academic
indicators serve important functions. However, these indicators may lose their
substantive meaning when treated as ends in themselves rather than as
instruments for producing valid and useful knowledge. Collins (1979)
demonstrated that educational credentials also serve social functions as
mechanisms of stratification. Society therefore needs to distinguish academic
credentials from epistemic competence.
This article aims to analyze this phenomenon from the
perspectives of philosophy, sociology, and public policy. Its primary objective
is not to claim that one society is more or less rational than another, but
rather to identify mechanisms through which critical reasoning may lose its
central position in social decision-making.
2. METHODOLOGY
This article employs a descriptive-qualitative
approach based on a conceptual and literature review. This approach was
selected because the subject concerns social and epistemic phenomena that
require interpretation of philosophical ideas, social theories, and concepts of
governance and public policy.
2.1. Data Sources
The primary sources consist of conceptual works relevant
to rationality, education, social stratification, the public sphere, and
anomie, including:
- Immanuel
Kant’s works on enlightenment and intellectual autonomy;
- René
Descartes’ works on methodological doubt and the foundations of knowledge;
- Randall
Collins’ theory of credentialism;
- Émile
Durkheim’s theory of anomie;
- Jürgen
Habermas’ concept of the public sphere;
- literature on
evidence-based policymaking; and
- literature on
the mobility of highly educated workers and brain drain.
2.2. Analytical Technique
The analysis was conducted in three stages. First, the
study identified key concepts concerning rationality and the use of reason.
Second, these concepts were mapped onto contemporary phenomena in academia, the
public sphere, politics, and governance. Third, a critical interpretation was
conducted to identify relationships among symbolic culture, institutional
incentives, and the quality of decision-making.
The analytical framework can be formulated as follows:
Information → Evidence Evaluation → Reasoning →
Consideration of Alternatives → Decision → Impact Evaluation
Conversely, a crisis of reasoning may develop through the
following pathway:
Information → Emotion/Identity → Repetition → Popularity
→ Decision
This distinction is important because the two processes
may produce different decisions even when individuals have access to the same
information.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Sapere Aude and the Challenge of Intellectual
Courage
Kant regarded the courage to think independently as one
of the central elements of enlightenment. Sapere aude does not mean
rejecting authority or assuming that every personal opinion is correct. Rather,
the principle requires individuals to exercise their rational capacities
independently while remaining intellectually responsible (Kant, 1784).
In the contemporary context, the challenge has become
even greater because human beings are confronted with an overwhelming flow of
information. Whereas limited knowledge was once the principal obstacle, the
problem has now shifted toward information abundance and the difficulty of
distinguishing valid information from invalid information.
An individual may encounter thousands of pieces of
information each day without possessing the ability to determine which are
data, interpretations, propaganda, opinions, speculation, or disinformation.
Thus, literacy in the twenty-first century cannot be limited to the ability to
read and write. It must develop into epistemic literacy—the ability to
understand how knowledge claims are constructed, verified, challenged, and
revised.
Here, Sapere aude acquires a renewed meaning. The
courage to use one’s own reason means having the courage to say:
“I do not know yet.”
Then:
“What is the evidence?”
And finally:
“Is the evidence sufficient to support this conclusion?”
These three simple questions constitute an important
foundation of a rational society.
3.2. From Cogito to a Culture of Critical Thinking
Through his Discourse on the Method, René
Descartes placed methodological doubt among the important instruments in the
search for certainty in knowledge (Descartes, 1637). The concept of cogito
is often summarized in the expression cogito, ergo sum—“I think,
therefore I am.”
In a modern context, this principle can be interpreted
not merely as a metaphysical statement concerning human existence, but also as
a reminder that human beings possess a reflective capacity to examine their own
beliefs.
The problem arises when individuals stop questioning
their beliefs simply because those beliefs originate from a group with which
they identify. Under such circumstances, rationality may become an instrument
of justification.
People no longer ask:
“Is this claim true?”
Instead, they ask:
“Does this claim benefit my group?”
This shift in questioning represents an important
indicator of a transition from the pursuit of truth toward the rationalization
of interests.
Critical reasoning, therefore, is not merely the ability
to identify other people’s mistakes. A higher form of critical reasoning is the
ability to identify the possibility that one’s own thinking may be mistaken.
3.3. Credential Inflation and the Reduction of the
Meaning of Education
One of the paradoxes of modern society is the growing
importance of formal education alongside the increasing possibility that
education may be reduced to a symbol of status.
Through the concept of the credential society,
Collins (1979) explained how educational credentials can function as mechanisms
of social selection and the distribution of opportunities. Degrees do not
merely represent education; they may also serve as signals of status,
competence, and social position.
Under normal circumstances, academic degrees serve an
important function. A doctoral degree, for example, indicates that an
individual has completed education and research at a particular level. However,
a degree is not an absolute guarantee that every opinion expressed by its
holder is correct.
It is therefore necessary to distinguish:
credential ≠ truth
position ≠ universal competence
popularity ≠ scientific validity
publication ≠ absolute truth
Academic quality is ultimately determined by a more
complex process: the research question, methodology, data quality, analysis,
openness to criticism, reproducibility, and scientific integrity.
When a degree becomes an end in itself, the intellectual
process may lose its substance.
Ideally, the scientific process moves through:
Reading → Questioning → Testing → Experiencing Failure →
Improving → Discovering → Producing Knowledge
By contrast, symbolic inflation may generate the
following pattern:
Credential → Status → Authority → Repetition → Immunity
to Criticism
This distinction is critically important for the health
of the scientific ecosystem.
3.4. When Symbols Overcome Substance
The crisis of rationality can also be understood as symbolic
inflation, a condition in which symbols acquire greater social value than
the substance they are supposed to represent.
An academic degree should represent competence. A uniform
should represent the responsibility associated with an office. Statistics
should represent the reality being measured. Public policy should represent an
effort to address public problems.
However, when symbols become ends in themselves, society
may experience what can conceptually be described as the substitution of
substance by representation.
In such an environment, individuals may become more
concerned with maintaining an image of success than with evaluating whether the
underlying objectives have actually been achieved.
This phenomenon does not occur only in academia. In
government, for example, the number of programs launched may be used as an
indicator of political achievement, while the more important question is
whether those programs actually solve public problems.
Accordingly, measures of success need to shift from:
“How many programs have been created?”
to:
“How much of the public problem has actually been
resolved?”
3.5. The Public Sphere: From Rational Discourse to the
Attention Economy
Jürgen Habermas viewed the public sphere as an important
arena for opinion formation through discourse that enables citizens to
deliberate rationally on matters of common concern (Habermas, 1989).
However, the digital public sphere has different
characteristics. Digital platform algorithms tend to allocate greater
visibility to content that generates high levels of engagement. In such an
environment, provocative or emotional content may gain greater visibility than
complex and nuanced explanations.
As a result, society may experience what can conceptually
be described as epistemic fragmentation. People inhabit different
information environments, meaning that the same facts may be interpreted
through radically different narratives.
The problem is not simply the existence of fake news. The
more fundamental problem is the erosion of shared mechanisms for determining
what should count as evidence.
When society no longer possesses a minimal consensus
regarding methods of verification, public debate may become a competition among
competing claims.
Under such conditions, people may no longer debate in
order to seek truth, but rather to defend identity.
3.6. Political Pragmatism and Civic Rationality
In a democratic system, citizens have the right to
determine their political choices based on their values, interests,
experiences, and own judgments. However, the quality of democracy is also
related to the quality of information available to citizens.
When political choices are shaped primarily by group
loyalty, unverified information, or short-term exchanges of interests, the
space for public deliberation becomes narrower.
This does not mean that every form of social assistance
or government program constitutes transactional politics. Social assistance may
have legitimate social and economic functions. The concern arises when public
programs are no longer assessed according to their design, effectiveness,
transparency, and impact, but primarily according to their short-term political
benefits.
A healthy democracy requires citizens who are able to
distinguish:
public policy from political image-building;
evidence of achievement from claims of achievement; and
political rights from patronage dependency.
3.7. Public Policy and the Importance of Evidence-Based
Policy
A crisis of reasoning has highly concrete consequences
when it enters the governmental decision-making process.
Public policy should ideally be developed through a
relationship among problems, evidence, policy alternatives, cost-benefit or
impact analysis, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. Head (2016)
emphasizes the importance of evidence in public policymaking while also
demonstrating that the relationship between science and policy is not always
straightforward.
Scientific knowledge does not automatically become
policy. Governments must also consider public values, budgetary constraints,
societal interests, political factors, and implementation capacity.
However, such complexity should not become a
justification for disregarding evidence.
A serious problem occurs when decisions are made first
and scientific justification is sought afterward.
The ideal pathway is:
Problem → Evidence → Analysis → Alternatives →
Consultation → Decision → Implementation → Evaluation
A problematic pathway is:
Decision → Implementation → Justification → Awaiting
Consequences → Searching for Someone to Blame
The distinction demonstrates that rationality is not
merely a matter of individual intelligence, but also a matter of institutional
architecture.
3.8. Policy Failure as a Failure of Learning
A single policy failure does not necessarily indicate a
crisis of reasoning. In complex systems, failure may occur even when
policymakers have used the best available evidence.
The problem becomes more serious when institutions fail
to learn from such failures.
A rational organization is not characterized by the
absence of mistakes, but by its ability to:
- detect
mistakes;
- acknowledge
mistakes;
- identify
their causes;
- improve the
design;
- reevaluate
the outcomes; and
- prevent the
recurrence of similar mistakes.
Institutional learning capacity is therefore an important
indicator of the health of reasoning within government.
3.9. Brain Drain and an Ecosystem Unfriendly to
Expertise
The mobility of scientists and professionals is a complex
global phenomenon. The movement of scientists to other countries does not
necessarily represent failure on the part of their countries of origin.
International mobility can also generate knowledge exchange, research networks,
investment, and brain circulation.
However, brain drain may become a problem when a
country systematically loses talent without being able to obtain commensurate
knowledge benefits.
A scientist’s decision to work abroad is influenced by
numerous factors, including the quality of research infrastructure, funding,
career opportunities, institutional stability, academic environment,
remuneration, academic freedom, and the quality of the research ecosystem.
Therefore, the response to the diaspora should not stop
at the question:
“Why did they leave?”
A more productive question is:
“What conditions would make such talent willing to come,
remain, collaborate, or return?”
A country seeking to develop a knowledge-based economy
must create an ecosystem that values competence and integrity, rather than
merely the possession of academic degrees.
3.10. Anomie and the Normalization of Deviance
Durkheim used the concept of anomie to describe
conditions in which social norms weaken or lose their binding force (Durkheim,
1893).
The concept can help explain situations in which society
formally recognizes that an action is wrong but gradually becomes accustomed to
witnessing such behavior.
In the context of corruption, for example, the problem is
not merely the act of obtaining illegal benefits. A broader problem emerges
when society begins to lose its moral sensitivity toward misconduct.
Corruption may then be perceived as:
- a risk
associated with public office;
- part of the
game of power;
- something
that is “already normal”; or
- an individual
mistake that can be forgiven because of group loyalty.
At that point, the problem shifts from a mere violation
of law to a crisis of norms.
Nevertheless, the use of religious or cultural symbols in
the public sphere must also be analyzed carefully. Religious symbols in
themselves cannot be regarded as evidence of justification for corruption. The
problem arises when such symbols are used to divert attention from substantive
accountability.
The principle that needs to be maintained is: respect
for a person is not the same as justification of that person’s actions.
3.11. The Crisis of Reason Is Not a Crisis of IQ
One common misconception in discussions of the decline of
reason is to assume that it demonstrates that human beings are becoming
increasingly unintelligent.
Such a conclusion is overly simplistic.
An individual may possess high cognitive ability yet
still make irrational decisions when interests, identities, group pressures, or
social incentives influence the reasoning process.
The issue examined in this article is therefore more
accurately described as a crisis in the use of reason rather than a crisis
of intelligence.
Human beings may possess substantial intellectual
capacity but use that capacity to rationalize conclusions that have already
been predetermined.
This phenomenon demonstrates the importance of
distinguishing:
intelligence — the
ability to process information,
from
rationality — the
ability to use information appropriately in forming beliefs and making
decisions that can be justified and held accountable.
The two are related, but they are not identical.
3.12. From “Smart People” to a “Reasoning Society”
A society does not merely need many intelligent people.
It needs systems that enable such intelligence to generate public benefit.
Scientists need the freedom to communicate research
findings. Bureaucrats need reliable data. Politicians need independent policy
information. Journalists need access to credible sources. Citizens need the
ability to assess all of this information.
The quality of reasoning is therefore the product of
interaction between individuals and institutions.
When institutions provide incentives for scientific
honesty, data transparency, criticism, and evaluation, reason is given room to
flourish.
Conversely, when institutions reward compliance,
popularity, loyalty, and image-building alone, critical thinking may become
personally disadvantageous.
This is where the crisis of reason becomes a structural
issue.
3.13. A Model for Restoring Reason
Based on the preceding discussion, the restoration of
rationality can be formulated around six pillars.
1. Epistemic Literacy
Society needs to be taught not merely what should be
known, but how to determine whether something is true.
2. Academic Integrity
Academic degrees and positions should once again be
closely associated with competence, research, integrity, and scholarly
contribution.
3. Academic Freedom
Scientists should be able to communicate research
findings without undue political pressure or inappropriate economic interests.
4. Evidence-Based Policymaking
Public decisions should be informed by data, evaluation,
risk analysis, and mechanisms for institutional learning.
5. Transparency and Accountability
Public institutions should enable citizens to understand
how decisions are made and how their outcomes are evaluated.
6. Intellectual Courage
Society needs to develop a culture that does not punish
individuals merely for asking critical questions.
Through these six pillars, Sapere aude can be
translated from a philosophical motto into a practical principle of public
life.
4. CONCLUSION
The question, “Where has my reason gone?”,
ultimately concerns not the disappearance of human intelligence, but the loss
of the courage and opportunity to use that intelligence responsibly.
Contemporary society lives in a paradox. Knowledge is
increasingly abundant, education is more widespread, technology is more
advanced, and information is easier to obtain. Yet, such abundance does not
automatically produce public rationality. When credentials replace competence,
symbols replace substance, popularity replaces evidence, and loyalty replaces
argumentation, what this article describes as a crisis of rationality and
symbolic inflation emerges.
This crisis cannot be reduced to low individual
intelligence. It is related to structures of incentives, organizational
culture, the quality of education, the character of the public sphere, policy
design, and institutional integrity.
Restoring reason therefore requires more than increasing
the number of schools, universities, doctoral graduates, professors, or
research institutions. More important is ensuring that these institutions
genuinely develop people’s capacity to question, doubt, test, revise, and take
responsibility for decisions.
Kant reminded humanity to have the courage to use its own
reason. Descartes emphasized the importance of thinking and methodological
doubt. Durkheim warned of the dangers associated with weakening social norms,
while Habermas demonstrated the importance of the public sphere as an arena for
opinion formation through communication and discourse.
These four intellectual traditions converge on an
important conclusion: a healthy society is not one that never makes mistakes,
but one that is capable of recognizing its mistakes, testing them against
evidence, and learning from them.
Therefore, the question “Where has my reason gone?”
should not end as a complaint. It should become the beginning of reflection:
Do I examine the evidence before believing something?
Do I have the courage to question information coming from
my own group?
Can I distinguish facts from opinions?
Do I evaluate policies based on their impacts rather than
merely their intentions?
And am I willing to change my opinion when evidence shows
that I am wrong?
If the answer is yes, then reason has not disappeared.
It simply needs to be called back.
Perhaps this is the deepest meaning of Sapere aude
in our time: dare to think, dare to examine, dare to question, and—most
difficult of all—dare to admit when we are wrong.
5. REFERENCES
Collins, R. (1979). The credential society: An
historical sociology of education and stratification. Academic Press.
Descartes, R. (1637). Discourse on the method of
rightly conducting one’s reason and of seeking truth in the sciences.
Durkheim, É. (1893). The division of labor in society.
Free Press.
Habermas, J. (1989). The structural transformation of
the public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society. MIT
Press.
Head, B. W. (2016). Toward more “evidence-informed”
policy making? Public Administration Review, 76(3), 472–484.
Kant, I. (1784). An answer to the question: What is
enlightenment?
Merton, R. K. (1968). Social theory and social
structure. Free Press.
Nutley, S. M., Walter, I., & Davies, H. T. O. (2007).
Using evidence: How research can inform public services. Policy Press.
Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society: An outline of
interpretive sociology. University of California Press.
World Bank. (2017). World development report 2017:
Governance and the law. World Bank.
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