The Ultimate Guide to Stopping Forest & Land Fires Before They Start – Experts Reveal the Hidden Strategies!

 

Guidelines for the Prevention and Control of Forest and Land Fires

 

INTRODUCTION

 

Forests and land are highly potential natural resources that can be utilized for national development. However, forests and land often face threats and disturbances that hinder conservation efforts. One of the major threats is forest and land fires.

 

Forest and land fires have negative impacts on plants, socio-economic conditions, and the environment. Thus, forest and land fires not only damage the forests and land themselves but also disrupt overall development processes.

 

For the time being, forest and land fires are still considered natural disasters, similar to earthquakes and typhoons. However, forest and land fires differ from these natural disasters. They can be prevented or controlled because we already know that during the dry season or in fire-prone areas, a lack of preventive measures will almost certainly lead to fires. Based on this, the control of forest and land fires must be handled in a planned, comprehensive, integrated, and sustainable manner. In other words, fire control should not focus only on extinguishing fires during the dry season but must also include preventive measures conducted continuously in both dry and rainy seasons.

 

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FOREST AND LAND FIRE

 

The factors causing forest and land fires are heat, fuel, and air/oxygen. These three elements form the fire triangle. In principle, forest and land fire control involves eliminating one or more of these elements.

 

The spread of fire depends on fuel and weather. Heavy fuels such as logs, stumps, and branches may burn slowly when dry but produce high heat. Light fuels such as dry grass, ferns, pine needles, and litter ignite easily and spread rapidly, potentially causing large forest/land fires.

 

Important weather elements in forest and land fires include wind, humidity, and temperature. Strong winds increase oxygen supply, accelerating fire spread. In large fires, wind becomes simultaneous; the larger the fire, the stronger the wind due to the movement of dense air masses toward the low-pressure heated area.

 

Fuel moisture content is also essential. Under normal conditions, fires spread slowly at night because fuel absorbs moisture. Dry air during the day can accelerate fires. Therefore, technically, controlling forest/land fires is easier at night than during the day. However, this does not mean serious fire control should not be performed during the day. In reality, fires are mostly fought during the day due to various considerations. Air temperature also affects firefighters; in hot conditions, endurance and working capacity decrease.

 

IMPACTS OF FOREST AND LAND FIRES

 

Impacts on Bio-Physical Conditions

 

Forest and land fires cause extensive damage. Impacts range from burn injuries on tree trunks to the complete destruction of vegetation. The most concerning consequence is the loss of genetic resources (germplasm) along with the destruction of vegetation. Fires also weaken stand resistance to pests and diseases. Trees that suffer burns may not die immediately but later succumb to decay or deterioration.

 

Forest fires reduce stand density, damage forage for wildlife, and disturb habitats. The destruction of one generation of forest stands means losing long-term investment and time required for forest regeneration.

 

Forest and land fires damage soil physical properties by destroying humus and organic matter. As a result, the soil becomes exposed to heat and surface runoff, leading to erosion, reduced percolation, and declining groundwater levels. Repeated fires deplete litter layers and kill microorganisms essential for soil fertility.

 

Fires also damage soil surfaces and increase erosion. Burned areas on slopes in upstream watershed regions reduce water storage capacity downstream. Observations show that repeated fires degrade land quality, causing erosion and flooding, which subsequently cause sedimentation in waterways, rivers, lakes, and dams.

 

Impacts on Socio-Economic Conditions

 

Bio-physical changes to natural resources and the environment reduce the carrying capacity and productivity of forests and land. This leads to decreased community and national income from forestry, agriculture, industry, trade, tourism services, and other sectors dependent on natural resources.

 

Impacts on the Environment

 

Besides material loss, forest and land fires also cause massive smoke accumulation. Fires in 1994 and 1997 drew global attention due to a specific weather condition where smoke was trapped under a cold atmospheric layer over Indonesia and neighboring countries, reducing visibility and disrupting land, sea, and air transportation.

 

SOURCES OF FOREST AND LAND FIRE IGNITION

 

Forest and land fire incidents have increased over the past decade in Indonesia. Most fires are caused by human negligence. Moreover, fire problems have been exacerbated by extremely dry conditions associated with periodic global climate changes affecting several regions in Indonesia.

 

Forest fires may occur unintentionally or intentionally. Unintentional causes include negligence by smokers, tourists, adventurers, forest workers, and forest product collectors. Many intentional fires originate from land clearing by industrial plantation developers, estate developers, forest encroachers, shifting cultivators, herders seeking to stimulate grass growth, hunters, honey collectors, and others.

 

Agriculture

Most fires originate from burning practices in rural land management systems. Forest clearing to create new agricultural areas has long been practiced. After 2–3 years of cultivation, soils lose fertility and are abandoned. New forest areas are then cleared for the same purpose, a cycle that increases with population growth.

 

Burning is also conducted in settled agricultural lands to remove crop residues and in plantation preparation areas. Since fires usually occur in the dry season and lack adequate supervision, they easily spread into adjacent forest/land areas.

 

Forest Plantation Development

In forest planting activities, especially through clear-cutting or reforestation, fire is used to clear land for planting. Carelessness often causes fires to spread into surrounding forest areas.

 

Logging

Fires caused by logging activities often stem from negligence during the dry season. For example, sparks from chainsaw exhaust may ignite dry materials and spread across the forest floor.

 

Coal Fire

Coal seam fires are a unique problem, such as those in East Kalimantan. Coal layers ignited during severe fires in 1993 continue to smolder underground. During the rainy season, the problem is minimal, but in the dry season, reduced soil moisture causes cracks through which heat escapes, igniting surrounding dry vegetation.

Many coal fire points remain and continue to pose hazards.

 

Natural Events

Although rare, forest and land fires may also originate from natural causes such as lightning. Since they occur during the rainy season, impacts are usually minor—however, if lightning strikes flammable tree canopies (e.g., pine), major crown fires may occur.

 

INTEGRATED FOREST FIRE MANAGEMENT

 

Forest fires occur almost every year and increasingly damage the environment. The main cause of control failure is fragmented, uncoordinated approaches. Most efforts focus on fire suppression while neglecting prevention and fuel management. Therefore, an integrated and coordinated fire management system is essential, consisting of:

1. Prevention of human-caused fires through education and outreach.
2. Effective fire detection through observation networks, efficient patrols, satellite imagery and GIS, communication systems, etc.
3. Rapid initial response.
4. Strong and directed follow-up action.

 

Each component is crucial. Neglecting any component can cause system failure.

Fire management plans for each area must define objectives, high-risk zones (based on historical data or hazard analysis), available resources, and planned activities. These plans should be reviewed regularly.

 

FOREST AND LAND FIRE CONTROL

 

Prevention of Forest and Land Fires

Prevention is better than cure. With a good prevention program, fires may not occur, minimizing suppression costs and avoiding damage. Prevention includes reducing hazards and risks through education, proper silviculture practices, fuel modification, and law enforcement.

 

Extension and Education

Since most fires in Indonesia are human-caused—whether through negligence or intent—community support and cooperation are crucial. Therefore, repeated outreach and education efforts are essential to raise awareness and involvement in forest protection.

 

Key considerations include:

a. Many people remain unaware or misinformed about fire prevention practices.

b. Carelessness by smokers, campers, and loggers contributes significantly.

c. Intentional or anti-social actions such as vandalism or selfish acts can trigger fires.

The first two groups (a & b) must be educated. Those uninformed must receive correct information; careless individuals may be targeted through publications or law enforcement where necessary. Cooperation with these groups helps address the third group.

Education plans must include community leaders, local media, audiovisual materials, circulars, leaflets, and pocket books.

Media such as newspapers, TV, and radio are effective tools for reaching the public, especially during dry seasons.

 

Silvicultural Practices

In a forest area with mixed vegetation or an agricultural crop of various ages, fire from a surface fire may spread from shrubs or understory plants upward into the canopy. Dead trees leaning on other trees also facilitate the spread of fire from a surface fire into a crown fire. Silvicultural treatments must be carefully planned to prevent the accumulation of fuel loads. Pruning and thinning should not be conducted during the dry season if the pruned branches and logging debris are left on-site, as these materials can easily ignite. Slash from thinning operations should be removed promptly.

 

The proper planning of timber harvesting activities, particularly road construction, is essential to ensure that fire does not spread uncontrollably during dry conditions. The establishment of firebreak systems and the removal of slash piles are important measures to reduce fire risk.

 

Fuel Modification

Fuel modification includes the reduction of combustible materials through methods such as:

• Mechanical removal
• Burning under controlled conditions
• Grazing
• Utilizing materials for local needs (e.g., firewood)

 

Fuel modification primarily aims to:

1. Reduce the amount of fuel that can sustain a fire.
2. Break the continuity of fuel horizontally and vertically.
3. Make the area more resistant to fire spread.

 

One of the most important fuel treatments is prescribed burning, which is the intentional use of fire under controlled conditions to reduce fuel loads. Prescribed burning must be carried out by trained personnel and according to regulations, with careful consideration of weather conditions, fuel conditions, and topography.

 

Law Enforcement

Law enforcement is a crucial component of fire prevention. Regulations related to the use of fire in forest and land management must be enforced consistently. Effective law enforcement includes:

• Clear regulations
• Strong institutional support
• Firm action against violators
• Public awareness that fire use without proper control is illegal

The purpose of law enforcement is not merely to punish but also to deter people from committing actions that lead to fires.

 

DETECTION AND REPORTING

 

Detection plays a vital role in every forest fire management activity. Fast and accurate fire detection, followed by efficient communication and immediate action, is essential for successful fire suppression. Detection requires careful consideration of factors such as:

• The size of the area to be monitored
• The level of fire risk
• Topography
• Vegetation type
• Available personnel

Forest fire detection involves:

1. Observation Networks

Includes the construction of lookout towers, use of vantage points, and deployment of observers.

2. Patrols

Both ground and aerial patrols may be conducted depending on the situation.

3. Remote Sensing

Utilization of satellite imagery (such as NOAA, MODIS, or other sensors) and GIS to detect hotspots and fire spread.

4. Community Reports

Local communities often detect fires earlier than authorities and therefore serve as an important source of information.

An effective communication system (radio, telephone, mobile networks) must be in place for quick reporting.

 

INITIAL ATTACK

 

Initial attack refers to immediate suppression efforts conducted as soon as a fire is detected. It is the most critical phase because the highest chance of successful control occurs within the first minutes or hours after ignition.

 

Factors influencing initial attack success include:

• Early detection
• Availability of trained personnel
• Accessibility to the fire site
• Weather conditions
• Equipment readiness

Initial attack teams must be trained to recognize fire behavior, choose the best suppression strategy, and ensure safety procedures are followed.

 

FOLLOW-UP ACTIONS

 

If the initial attack fails, follow-up actions (extended attack) are required. These include:

• Reinforcement of personnel and equipment
• Construction of containment lines
• Use of heavy machinery
• Possible aerial firefighting techniques
• Long-term mop-up operations to prevent re-ignition

Coordination between agencies becomes essential during extended operations.

 

SUPPRESSION TECHNIQUES

 

Forest and land fire suppression includes various techniques:

1. Direct Attack

Firefighters work directly on the fire edge using tools and water.

2. Indirect Attack

Firelines are constructed at a distance from the fire, and controlled burning may be conducted to stop fire spread.

3. Aerial Support

Includes water bombing, surveillance flights, and personnel transport.

4. Mop-Up Operations

Ensuring all embers, hotspots, and leftover fuels are fully extinguished to prevent re-ignition.

 

ORGANIZATION AND PERSONNEL

 

Forest fire management must involve a clear organizational structure:

• Command and control system
• Trained firefighting units
• Support teams (logistics, communication, medical)
• Coordination between government, private sector, communities, NGOs, and military/police

 

Training should include:

• Fire behavior
• Suppression techniques
• Equipment handling
• Field safety
• First aid

 

EQUIPMENT

 

Firefighting equipment may include:

• Basic tools (hoes, machetes, rakes)
• Portable pumps and hoses
• Water tanks
• Protective gear
• Vehicles (trucks, 4WD, motorcycles)
• Communication equipment

Maintenance and readiness checks must be conducted routinely.

 

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

 

Community involvement is one of the most important aspects of forest and land fire management. Forms of participation include:

• Establishing community fire brigades
• Participating in awareness programs
• Reporting fires early
• Helping build firebreaks
• Supporting law enforcement

Communities living near forests are typically the first to detect fires and therefore play a crucial role in prevention, detection, and suppression.

 

COORDINATION AND COOPERATION

 

Integrated forest and land fire management must involve cooperation among:

• Government agencies
• Private companies
• Local communities
• NGOs
• Universities
• International partners

Coordinated efforts help ensure the optimal use of resources and prevent overlapping actions.

 

REHABILITATION OF BURNT AREAS

 

Fire-damaged areas must be rehabilitated to prevent further environmental degradation. Rehabilitation activities include:

• Soil stabilization
• Erosion control
• Reforestation
• Restoration of habitats
• Community involvement in restoration

The objective is to restore ecosystem functions and prevent future fire risks.

 

CONCLUSION

 

Forest and land fires are not natural disasters that occur randomly—they are largely preventable. With proper planning, consistent prevention efforts, effective detection systems, and coordinated suppression strategies, fires can be minimized. Forest and land fire management must be:

• Planned
• Integrated
• Comprehensive
• Sustainable

Only through collective action can we protect forests and support sustainable development.

#ForestFirePrevention 

#WildfireControl 

#SustainableForestry 

#ClimateSafety 

#EnvironmentalProtection

Bahaya Sesium-137 Terungkap! Radioisotop ‘Hantu’ yang Mengancam Lingkungan & Kesehatan Kita

 

Sesium-137: Karakteristik Radioisotop, Perilaku Lingkungan, Kegunaan, dan Risiko Kesehatan

 

Abstrak

 

Sesium-137 (¹³⁷Cs) merupakan produk fisi nuklir berumur menengah yang berperan besar dalam kontaminasi lingkungan pasca kecelakaan reaktor dan uji senjata nuklir (Steinhauser et al., 2014). Waktu paruhnya yang panjang, volatilitas tinggi, sifat kimia yang mudah larut, serta emisi gama energik menjadikannya isu penting dalam radiologi lingkungan dan keamanan nuklir (Delacroix et al., 2002). Artikel ini meninjau karakteristik fisik-nuklir, mekanisme peluruhan, perilaku lingkungan, aplikasi industri, serta risiko kesehatan terkait paparan ¹³⁷Cs melalui telaah literatur sistematis.

 

1. Pendahuluan

 

Sesium-137 (¹³⁷Cs) adalah radioisotop antropogenik yang berasal dari fisi nuklir uranium-235 dan plutonium (Bunting, 1975). Isotop ini menjadi radionuklida global akibat jatuhan nuklir dan insiden besar seperti Chernobyl dan Fukushima (Yasunari et al., 2011; Steinhauser et al., 2014). Dengan waktu paruh 30,05 tahun, ia berkontribusi besar terhadap paparan radiasi jangka panjang di lingkungan (Delacroix et al., 2002).

 

2. Karakteristik Fisik dan Nuklir Sesium-137

 

Karakteristik inti dan data peluruhan ¹³⁷Cs telah dilaporkan secara rinci dalam kompilasi nuklir standar (Bunting, 1975; Delacroix et al., 2002). Peluruhan menuju ¹³⁷mBa dan emisi gama 661,7 keV menjadikan radionuklida ini mudah diidentifikasi dan sering dipakai sebagai sumber kalibrasi.

 

3. Fisika Peluruhan

 

Transisi gama 662 keV dari ¹³⁷mBa telah dikonfirmasi secara eksperimental dan menjadi dasar penggunaan ¹³⁷Cs sebagai standar spektrometri gama (Bunting, 1975). Proporsi 94,6% peluruhan menuju keadaan metastabil sejalan dengan model data peluruhan nuklir internasional (Delacroix et al., 2002).

 

4. Kegunaan Sesium-137

 

4.1 Bidang Industri

Penggunaan ¹³⁷Cs sebagai sumber radiasi industri mencakup pengukur ketebalan, logging sumur, dan kalibrasi, meski kini dibatasi karena sifat CsCl yang sangat larut (Okumura, 2003).

4.2 Bidang Medis

Aplikasi medis tradisional termasuk radioterapi dan brachytherapy, tetapi kini banyak digantikan oleh ⁶⁰Co (Delacroix et al., 2002).

4.3 Penelitian Lingkungan

¹³⁷Cs digunakan sebagai pelacak erosi, sedimentasi, dan sebagai tracer dalam studi transfer ekologis (Murakami et al., 2014; Paller et al., 2014; Negishi et al., 2017).

 

5. Perilaku Lingkungan Sesium-137

 

Volatilitas tinggi dan kelarutan CsCl menyebabkan penyebaran melalui atmosfer dan perairan (Steinhauser et al., 2014). Distribusi pasca-Fukushima terdokumentasi luas di tanah, laut, dan biota di Jepang (Yasunari et al., 2011; Otosaka & Kobayashi, 2013; Yamashiki et al., 2014). Mobilitas ¹³⁷Cs sangat dipengaruhi jenis tanah (Qin et al., 2012) dan dinamika ekosistem hutan (Nakanishi et al., 2014; Otosaka & Kobayashi, 2016).

Transport laut memperlihatkan peran arus mesoscale eddies dalam pergerakan isotop dari Fukushima ke Pasifik (Budyansky et al., 2014).

Pengukuran kontaminasi di berbagai kompartemen lingkungan juga dilaporkan di Amerika Utara (Smith et al., 2013) dan Eropa (Kirchner et al., 2015).

 

6. Risiko Kesehatan Sesium-137

 

¹³⁷Cs meniru perilaku biologis kalium dan berdistribusi pada jaringan lunak (Nikula et al., 1996). Data toksisitas eksperimental pada anjing dan hewan laboratorium menunjukkan hubungan jelas antara dosis dan kematian (Redman et al., 1972; Nikula et al., 1996).

Dampak ekologis pada biota sensitif juga tercatat, termasuk dampak multigenerasi pada kupu-kupu di Jepang (Nohara et al., 2014; Nohara et al., 2018).

Paparan manusia pasca-insiden Fukushima menunjukkan pola risiko yang berkaitan dengan paparan kronis tingkat rendah (Steinhauser et al., 2014).

 

7. Insiden Radiologis Penting Terkait Sesium-137

 

Insiden besar yang melibatkan ¹³⁷Cs menunjukkan dampak kesehatan signifikan, seperti:

• Goiânia (1987): kasus paparan akut akibat CsCl (Delacroix et al., 2002).
• Kontaminasi logam industri termasuk Acerinox Spanyol (1998) dan Tongchuan Tiongkok (2009) menunjukkan risiko sumber tua dan scrap metal (Okumura, 2003).
• Pelepasan besar pada Fukushima Dai-ichi (2011) terdokumentasi secara luas (Yasunari et al., 2011; Steinhauser et al., 2014; Kirchner et al., 2015).

 

8. Metodologi

 

Sumber data utama mencakup jurnal ilmiah dan laporan internasional (Delacroix et al., 2002; Bunting, 1975). Data lingkungan diambil dari hasil penelitian ekologi pasca-Fukushima (Murakami et al., 2014; Paller et al., 2014; Negishi et al., 2017; Yamashiki et al., 2014).

 

9. Hasil

 

Tabel disusun berdasarkan kompilasi data nuklir (Bunting, 1975; Delacroix et al., 2002), penelitian toksikologi hewan (Redman et al., 1972; Nikula et al., 1996), dan studi lingkungan (Otosaka & Kobayashi, 2013; Qin et al., 2012; Nakanishi et al., 2014).

Tabel 1. Karakteristik Inti Sesium-137

Parameter	Nilai
Nomor atom	55
Waktu paruh	30,05 tahun
Energi beta	0,512 MeV
Energi gama	0,6617 MeV
Jalur peluruhan utama	β⁻ → ¹³⁷mBa
Aktivitas 1 gram	3,215 TBq
Kelarutan	Sangat tinggi (CsCl)

 

Tabel 2. Dampak Kesehatan Paparan ¹³⁷Cs

Spesies / Kondisi	Dosis	Hasil
Tikus	21,5 μCi/g	50% kematian dalam 30 hari
Anjing	3800 μCi/kg	Kematian dalam 33 hari
Manusia – paparan kronis	<100 Bq/kg	Peningkatan risiko kanker
Manusia – kecelakaan akut	>1 Gy (setara)	Sindrom radiasi akut

 

Tabel 3. Tren Mobilitas Sesium-137 dalam Lingkungan

Media Lingkungan	Mobilitas (skala 1–10)
Udara	9
Air permukaan	8
Tanah liat	3
Tanah berpasir	7
Biota	6

 

Data menunjukkan bahwa mobilitas tertinggi terjadi di udara dan air permukaan, sementara terendah pada tanah liat akibat daya adsorpsi yang kuat.

 

10. Pembahasan

 

Kajian perilaku lingkungan ¹³⁷Cs menunjukkan ketergantungan kuat pada karakteristik mineral tanah dan dinamika ekosistem (Qin et al., 2012; Nakanishi et al., 2014; Negishi et al., 2017). Data pergerakan laut dari Fukushima memberikan gambaran transport lintas-samudra (Budyansky et al., 2014).

Pengaruh biologis dilaporkan dalam studi toksikologi dan ekologi baik pada mamalia maupun serangga (Redman et al., 1972; Nikula et al., 1996; Nohara et al., 2014).

 

11. Kesimpulan

Studi ini menegaskan bahwa ¹³⁷Cs merupakan radionuklida kunci dalam radiologi lingkungan dan kesehatan. Pemahaman mendalam terhadap peluruhan, perilaku lingkungan, dan risiko kesehatan memerlukan integrasi data dari berbagai sumber ilmiah (Steinhauser et al., 2014; Yasunari et al., 2011; Bunting, 1975).

 

Daftar Pustaka

1. Bunting, R. L. (1975). Nuclear Data Sheets for A = 137. Nuclear Data Sheets, 15(3), 335–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-3752(75)90026-0 OSTI+1
2. Delacroix, D., Guerre, J.-P., Leblanc, P., & Hickman, C. (2002). Radionuclide and Radiation Protection Data Handbook (2nd ed.). Nuclear Technology Publishing. SpringerLink+1
3. Murakami, M., Ohte, N., Suzuki, T., Ishii, N., Igarashi, Y., & Tanoi, K. (2014). Biological proliferation of cesium-137 through the detrital food chain in a forest ecosystem in Japan. Scientific Reports, 4, 3599. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep03599 PMC+1
4. Paller, M. H., Jannik, G. T., & Baker, R. A. (2014). Effective half-life of caesium-137 in various environmental media at the Savannah River Site. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 131, 81–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2013.10.024 ScienceDirect+1
5. Steinhauser, G., Brandl, A., & Johnson, T. E. (2014). Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents: A review of the environmental impacts. Science of the Total Environment, 470–471, 800–817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.10.029 CoLab+1
6. Nikula, K. J., Boecker, B. B., & Griffith, W. C. (1996). Biological effects of ¹³⁷CsCl injected in beagle dogs of different ages. Radiation Research, 142(3), 347–361. https://doi.org/10.2307/3579554 OSTI
7. Redman, H. C., McClellan, R. O., Jones, R. K., Boecker, B. B., Chiffelle, T. L., Pickrell, J. A., & Rypka, E. W. (1972). Toxicity of 137-CsCl in the beagle: Early biological effects. Radiation Research, 50(3), 629–648. doi:10.2307/3573559 Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias+1
8. Okumura, T. (2003). The material flow of radioactive cesium-137 in the U.S., 2000. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (EPA Report) dent.ibnsina.edu.iq+1
9. Yasunari, T. J., Stohl, A., Hayano, R. S., Burkhart, J. F., Eckhardt, S., & Yamamoto, M. (2011). Cesium-137 deposition and contamination of Japanese soils due to the Fukushima nuclear accident. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(49), 19530–19534. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112058108 PMC+1
10. Nohara, C., Hiyama, A., Taira, W., Tanahara, A., & Otaki, J. M. (2014). Ingestion of radioactively contaminated diets for two generations in the pale grass blue butterfly. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 14, 193. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-014-0193-7 u-ryukyu.repo.nii.ac.jp
11. Nohara, C., Hiyama, A., Taira, W., Tanahara, A., Takatsuji, T., & Otaki, J. M. (2018). Robustness and radiation resistance of the pale grass blue butterfly from radioactively contaminated areas: a possible case of adaptive evolution. Journal of Heredity, 109(1), 31–... [halaman lengkap tergantung edisi] u-ryukyu.repo.nii.ac.jp
12. Otosaka, S., & Kobayashi, T. (2013). Sedimentation and remobilization of radiocesium in the coastal area of Ibaraki, 70 km south of the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185, 5419–5433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2982-7 ResearchMap+1
13. Qin, H., Yokoyama, Y., Fan, Q., Iwatani, H., Tanaka, K., Sakaguchi, A., Kanai, Y., Zhu, J., Onda, Y., & Takahashi, Y. (2012). Investigation of cesium adsorption on soil and sediment samples from Fukushima Prefecture by sequential extraction and EXAFS technique. Geochemical Journal, 46, 297–302. https://doi.org/10.2343/geochemj.1.0241 ResearchMap
14. Nakanishi, T., Matsunaga, T., Koarashi, J., & Atarashi-Andoh, M. (2014). ¹³⁷Cs vertical migration in a deciduous forest soil following the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant accident. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 128, 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2013.09.005 SpringerLink+1
15. Negishi, J. N., Sakai, M., Okada, K., Iwamoto, A., Gomi, T., & Miura, K. (2017). Cesium-137 contamination of river food webs in a gradient of initial fallout deposition in Fukushima, Japan. Landscape Ecology and Engineering, 14, 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-017-0324-4 ResearchMap
16. Otosaka, S., & Kobayashi, T. (2016). Input and output budgets of radiocesium concerning the forest floor in a mountain forest of Fukushima released from the TEPCO’s Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant accident. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 161, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2016.05.006 ScienceDirect+1
17. Yamashiki, Y., Onda, Y., Koarashi, J., Tsuji, H., Yukievich, N., & Okumura, T. (2014). Reservoir sediments as a long-term source of dissolved radiocaesium in water systems: A mass balance case study in an artificial reservoir in Fukushima, Japan. Science of the Total Environment, 497–498, 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.08.095 OSTI+1
18. Kirchner, G., Bossew, P., & De Cort, M. (2015). Radioactivity from Fukushima Dai-ichi in air over Europe; part 2: what can it tell us about the accident? Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 150–151, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2015.05.010 PMC+1
19. Smith, A. R., Thomas, K. J., Norman, E. B., Hurley, D. L., Lo, B. T., Chan, Y. D., Guillaumon, P. V., & Harvey, B. G. (2013). Measurements of fission products from the Fukushima Daiichi incident in filters, rainwater, and food in the San Francisco Bay area. arXiv preprint arXiv:1312.7314. arXiv
20. Budyansky, M. V., Goryachev, V. A., Kaplunenko, D. D., Lobanov, V. B., Prants, S. V., Sergeev, A. F., Shlyk, N. V., & Uleysky, M. Y. (2014). Role of mesoscale eddies in transport of Fukushima-derived cesium isotopes in the ocean. arXiv preprint arXiv:1410.2359. arXiv

#Sesium137 

#Radioisotop 

#Radiasi 

#Lingkungan 

#Kesehatan

Alarm PPR di Asia Tenggara! Risiko Masuknya Penyakit Mematikan Kambing–Domba Lebih Tinggi dari Perkiraan!

 

Penilaian Risiko Kualitatif terhadap Pengenalan Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) di kawasan ASEAN

 

Ringkasan

 

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) adalah penyakit hewan lintas batas yang ditandai dengan demam tinggi, keluarnya sekresi hidung, gangguan pernapasan, dan diare. Virus PPR sangat menular dan terutama menyebar melalui kontak dengan hewan terinfeksi, meskipun penularan tidak langsung juga dapat terjadi melalui pakan, air, dan peralatan yang terkontaminasi. PPR merupakan salah satu penyakit virus paling penting pada ruminansia kecil dan menyebabkan morbiditas serta mortalitas yang tinggi, terutama pada populasi naïf yang belum pernah terpapar virus PPR sebelumnya. PPR menimbulkan ancaman serius bagi populasi ruminansia kecil dan diperkirakan menyebabkan lebih dari 37 juta kematian pada domba dan kambing setiap tahun di negara endemik, dengan kerugian mencapai USD 1,48 miliar per tahun (Jones et al., 2016).

 

Wilayah Asia Tenggara pada umumnya masih bebas dari PPR. Namun, bukti serologis telah terdeteksi di Laos dan Vietnam, dan pernah dilaporkan adanya introduksi penyakit di Thailand akibat impor hewan hidup. Wilayah ini juga berbatasan dengan India, Bangladesh, dan Tiongkok, yang merupakan negara endemik PPR. PPR tetap menjadi ancaman signifikan bagi kawasan karena apabila penyakit ini masuk, dampaknya akan besar terhadap kesehatan dan produksi ruminansia kecil, serta dapat memengaruhi mata pencaharian peternak, perekonomian pedesaan, dan pasokan pangan. Mengingat pentingnya penyakit ini bagi kawasan, ASEAN Sectoral Working Group for Livestock (ASWGL) pada pertemuan tahun 2021 memutuskan untuk mengembangkan Strategi Kesiapsiagaan PPR Regional guna memperkuat kapasitas negara anggota dalam mencegah, mendeteksi, dan menanggulangi PPR, serta meningkatkan koordinasi dan pertukaran informasi di kawasan ASEAN.

 

Penilaian risiko ini dilakukan untuk mendukung pengembangan strategi kesiapsiagaan ASEAN tersebut. Tujuannya adalah menilai kemungkinan masuknya virus PPR (PPRV) ke negara-negara Anggota ASEAN untuk menentukan opsi mitigasi risiko demi melindungi populasi ruminansia kecil yang rentan serta mata pencaharian peternak di kawasan. Analisis risiko kualitatif ini mengikuti pedoman WOAH sebagaimana dijelaskan dalam Bab 2.1 Kode Kesehatan Hewan Terestrial WOAH (23) dan Handbook on Import Risk Analysis for Animals and Animal Products (24). Kami juga merujuk pada rekomendasi terkait impor hewan dan produknya yang tercantum dalam Bab 4.7 Kode Kesehatan Hewan Terestrial WOAH (25).

 

Dasar inferensi kami menggunakan data perdagangan resmi dan survei terhadap negara-negara Anggota ASEAN. Proses dimulai dengan merumuskan pertanyaan risiko dan mengembangkan jalur risiko (risk pathways) untuk masuknya PPR ke kawasan ASEAN melalui perdagangan formal maupun informal atas domba/kambing hidup, daging dan produk daging, semen, serta embrio, dengan berkonsultasi bersama perwakilan regional. Data perdagangan resmi dikumpulkan dari basis data FAOSTAT, dan informasi status PPR negara pengekspor berasal dari sistem informasi WAHIS milik WOAH. Data tambahan terkait praktik impor di negara ASEAN diperoleh melalui survei menggunakan kuesioner khusus. Menghubungkan data perdagangan dengan status PPR negara asal serta data survei memungkinkan kami membuat inferensi objektif tentang tingkat risiko berbagai aktivitas impor dari berbagai negara.

 

Hasil laporan ini menunjukkan bahwa kawasan ASEAN memiliki risiko yang tidak dapat diabaikan terkait masuknya PPR melalui perdagangan ruminansia kecil dan produknya, maupun melalui potensi introduksi penyakit dari negara tetangga. Namun, sebagian besar risiko dapat dikelola dengan mengubah sumber impor ruminansia kecil dan produknya, mewajibkan penyediaan sertifikat veteriner internasional, serta memperkuat fasilitas dan layanan karantina perbatasan, layanan veteriner, dan laboratorium melalui partisipasi dalam evaluasi PVS dan implementasi rekomendasinya.

 

Berdasarkan temuan penilaian risiko ini, kami memberikan rekomendasi berikut:

 

Rekomendasi Utama

 

1. Mengimpor dari negara berisiko rendah

Beli ruminansia kecil dan produknya dari negara/wilayah yang bersertifikat bebas PPR atau yang secara historis tidak pernah melaporkan PPR. Pastikan eksportir memilih peternakan yang tidak melaporkan kasus PPR sedikitnya dalam 21 hari terakhir.

 

2. Wajibkan penyediaan sertifikat veteriner internasional

Minta eksportir menyediakan sertifikat yang memenuhi persyaratan dalam Bab 4.7 Kode Kesehatan Hewan Terestrial WOAH (25), misalnya:

• hewan tidak menunjukkan gejala klinis PPR dalam 21 hari terakhir,
• donor semen/embrio berasal dari negara/wilayah bebas PPR selama 21 hari sebelum pengambilan,
• daging berasal dari hewan yang tidak menunjukkan gejala PPR dalam 24 jam sebelum pemotongan.

Sertifikat ini juga menjamin bahwa hewan dipotong di rumah potong hewan yang disetujui dan menjalani pemeriksaan ante-mortem dan post-mortem, serta bahwa semen dan embrio dikumpulkan, diproses, dan disimpan sesuai standar WOAH.

 

3. Memastikan pengaturan pra-karantina sebelum ekspor

Wajibkan negara pengekspor menempatkan hewan di fasilitas pra-ekspor selama minimal 21 hari sebelum pengiriman dan menolak seluruh kiriman bila ada hewan yang menunjukkan gejala selama periode tersebut. Pastikan fasilitas memiliki SOP yang diikuti dengan baik dan bahwa dokter hewan terlatih dalam diagnosis PPR. Wajibkan pula pengujian hewan dengan uji diagnostik PPR yang memiliki sensitivitas tinggi.

 

4. Memperkuat fasilitas dan tenaga karantina

Tempatkan hewan di stasiun karantina selama minimal 21 hari, terutama jika tidak menjalani pra-ekspor yang memadai. Susun SOP pemeriksaan dan pengujian hewan di karantina dengan uji sensitif. Pastikan dokter hewan dan tenaga laboratorium terlatih dalam pengambilan sampel dan diagnosis PPR. Peningkatan kualitas laboratorium melalui evaluasi PVS sangat dianjurkan.

 

5. Memperkuat biosekuriti perbatasan

Latih petugas perbatasan dan karantina untuk melakukan pengawasan ketat terhadap perdagangan ilegal ruminansia kecil dan produknya. SOP harus memastikan bahwa hewan sitaan dieutanasi dan produk hewan mentah ilegal dimusnahkan.

 

Strategi manajemen risiko ini diharapkan dapat mengurangi risiko masuknya PPR ke negara-negara Anggota ASEAN, sekaligus memperkuat kapasitas mereka dalam menghadapi penyakit hewan lintas batas lainnya sambil tetap mempertahankan perdagangan ruminansia kecil dan produknya.

 

Nilai tambah akan diperoleh dari pengembangan lanjutan kajian ini. Meski dilakukan pada tingkat regional, proses dan jalur risiko dapat berbeda antarnegara. Kami berupaya memberikan detail nasional semaksimal mungkin sambil mempertahankan perspektif regional, namun penyempurnaan jalur risiko tetap diperlukan untuk implementasi pada tingkat negara. Selain itu, cakupan proyek ini belum mencakup penilaian paparan dan konsekuensi. Kajian ini dapat diperluas dengan memasukkan kedua komponen tersebut untuk menghasilkan estimasi risiko yang lebih komprehensif melalui integrasi penilaian masuk (entry), paparan (exposure), dan konsekuensi (consequence).

#PPR 

#ASEANBiosecurity 

#RiskAssessment 

#LivestockHealth 

#TransboundaryDisease